eoujin  ajiiiBOR  Rice  ^^ 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 


Carl ©ton  Shay 


[GREEN  FUND  BOOK  No.  16] 


Orientalisms 
IN  Bible  Lands 


GIVING  LIGHT  FROM  CUSTOMS, 
HABITS,  MANNERS,  IMAGERY, 
THOUGHT  AND  LIFE  IN  THE 
EAST    FOR    BIBLE    STUDENTS. 


BY 

EDWIN  WILBUR   RICE,  D.  D. 

AUTHOR   OK 

■  Commentaries  on  the  Gospels  and  The  Acts  ;  "   "  Our  Sixty-Six  Sacred 

Books  ;  "   "  People's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible ;  "  "  Handy 

Helps   for    Busy  Workers,"  etc. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

The  American    Sunday-School   Union, 

1816  Chestnut  Street. 


Copyright,    1910,) 
by 
The  American  Sunday-School   Union 


<v 


CONTENTS. 


I.  The  Oriental  Family •  •  •  • •  •  •  •     " 

The  Bible — Oriental  Color. — Overturned  Customs. —  ine 
"Father."— No  Courtship.— The  Son.— The  Father  Rules.— 
Patriarchal  Rule.— Semites  and  Hebrews. 

II.  Forming  the  Oriental  Family:  Betrothal i6 

Love-making  Unknown.  —  Girl's  Gifts.  —  Wife-seeking. — 
Matchmaking.— The  Contract.— The  Dowry.— How  Set- 
tied.— How  Paid.— Second  Marriage. — Exempt  from  Duties. 

III.  Marriage  Processions ■  •  •   •  •     24 

Parades  in  Public— Bridal  Costumes.— Bnde's  Proces- 
sion (In  Hauran,— In  Egypt  and  India).— Bridegroom's 
Procession.— The  Midnight  Call.— The  Shut  Door. 

IV.  Marriage  Feasts ■  •     3^ 

Great  Feasts.— Its  Magnificence.— Its  Variety. — Congratula- 
tions.—Unveiling  the  Face.— Wedding  Garment.— Display 
of  Gifts.— Capturing  the  Bride.— In  Old  Babylonia. 

V.  The    Household ;  •  •  •     39 

Training  a  Wife. — Primitive  Order. — The  Social  Unit. — 
Childless. — Divorce. 

VI.  Oriental  Children 43 

Joy  Over  Children.— The  Son-heir.- Family  Names.— Why 
Given?— The  Babe. — How  Carried.— Child  Growth. — 
Steps  and  Grades. 

VII.  Oriental  Child's  Plays  and  Games 49 

Shy  and  Actors.— Kinds  of  Plavs.— Toys  in  the  East.— 
Ball  Games.— Athletic  Games.— Children  Happy.— Japanese 
Children. 

VIII.  Education  of  Oriental  Children 5^ 

Child  Culture.— Relipious  Motive.- Oriental  Schools.— 
Trained  in  Manners. — Oral  Teaching. — Hebrew  Graded  Sys- 
tem.— Genera  IKnowledge. — Teachers. — Subjects  of  Study.— 
Value  of  Training.— Hindu  Education.— Purity  Taught. 


g-f  r>Q?PO 


CONTENTS. 


IX.  Relation  of  Parents,  Children  and  Servants 59 

Obedience. — Son  Seeks  Advice. — Slaves  in  the  East. — 
Children  as  Slaves. — Mixed  Classes. — ^Women  Secluded. — 
Women,  Slave  Companions. — Retainers. 

X.  Woman  Among  Orientals 63 

Woman  Degraded. — Examples  in  Orient. — Hebrew  Women. 
— Moslem  Women — Eating  with  Men. — Queens. — Peasant 
Women.  —  Wife  Divorce.  —  Growing  Odious.  —  Divorces 
One-sided. — ^Woman  a  Drudge. — Women  Concealed. 

XI.  Social  Intercourse — Neighbors,  Kinsmen 70 

Social  Basis. — Social  Visits. — Guests. — No  Privacy. — Greet- 
ings.— Sitting  and  Conversation. — Topics  Tabooed. — 
Refreshments. — Politely  Detained. — Going  with  the  Guest. — 
Greeting  and  Parting. 

XII.  Social  Intercoltrse — Salutations 77 

Salutations  Important. — Makes  Bonds. — Salaams. — The  De- 
lays.— The  Strict  Etiquette.— Returning  Salutations. — 
Shalom,  "Peace." — "Grace"  in  Salutation. — Symbols  and 
Gestures. 

XIII.  Social  Intercourse — Hospitality 82 

Tokens. — A  Foe-guest. — Stranger-guest. — Lot  and  Job. — 
Arab  Hospitality. — Presents,  Not  Pay. — Hospitality  Re- 
warded.— Hospitality  Unrewarded. — Public  Guest-room. — 
Pay  Resented. — Questions. — Treatment  of  Guests. — Anoint- 
ing Guests. — Bible  Instances. — Proverbs  on  Hospitality. — 
Lodges. — Khan,  Inn. — Menzil. — Fed  by  Strangers. — Not 
Eat  Alone. — Token  of  Friendship. 

XIV.  Eating  and  Meals 94 

Vegetarians. — Eating  Raw  Grain. — Milk. — Butter. — Bread. 
— F)i->ur  Unbolted.  —  Kamaj.  —  Nutrition.  —  Grain  Pits. — 
Cooking. — "Mashee." — Locusts. — Wine. — Diet  and  Meals. 
— ^\Vash  before  Eating. — Why  Wash. — Dining  Furniture. — 
Place  of  Honor. — Chief  Dish.— The  Guest. — Desserts. 

XV.  Dress  and  Ornaments 105 

Costume  Healthful. — Turban  and  Aba. — Kuftan. — The 
Girdle. — String  of  Coins. — Dress  in  Africa. — Dress  in  Sv-ria. 
— In  Walking. — Signet. — Nose  Rings. — Earrings. — Chains 
and  Mirrors. — Korean  Dress. 

XVI.  Diseases  and  Medicine iii 

FaiI  Spirits. — Leprosy. — Dr.  Post  on  Leprosy. — Leprosy  in 
Palestine. — Demon  Possession. — Barber-doctors. — Shepherd- 
doctors  and  Dogs. — Feeding  Lepers. — The  Insane. — Oil  and 
Honey  Remedies. — Medicine-man. — Sick  Everj'where. 


CONTENTS.  5 

PAGE 

XVII.  Mourning  and  Burials 117 

Hysterical  Display. — A  Syrian  Case. — Death  Shriek. — 
Lamentations. — Cries  and  Dirges. — Endangers  Life. — 
Burial. — Wrapping  the  Body. — Spices  in  Burial. — Em- 
balming.— Rending  the  Garment. — At  the  Tomb. — 
Weeping  at  Tomb. — Tear  Bottles. — Yearly  Mourning.— 
Cutting  Forbidden,  Wailing. — Good  Burial,  Comfort. 

XVIII.  Land  Tenure 127 

Tribal  Titles. — Personal  Titles. — Buying  Land. — Allotted 
Land. — Climate  and  Soil. 

XIX.  Oriental  Occupations  and  Professions 131 

Tent  Life  and  Herds. — Edenic  Picture. — Two  Occupations. 

— Oriental  Farmers. — Grain. — The  Farms. — Sowing. — Life 
Work. — The  Plow. — Barley  Harvest. — Hunger  Limit. — Time 
of  Harvests. — A  "Barley  Cake." — Sowing  and  Reaping  To- 
gether. —  Two  Seasons.  —  Reaping.  —  Gleaning.  —  Parched 
Grain. — Threshing. — Ways  of  Threshing. — Treading  Grain. 
— Winnowing  and  Sifting. — Granaries. 

XX.  Fruits  and  Vines i4S 

Kinds  of  Fruits.— Figs.— Eariy  Figs.— The  Olive.— Old 
Olive  Trees. — Olive  and  Peace. — Olive  Oil. — Proverbs  on 
Olives  and  Figs.— Oil  Press.— Use  of  Oil,  etc.— Grapes.— 
Pruning.  —  Vineyards.  —  Towers  and  Watchmen.  —  Dried 
Grapes.— "Dibs."— How  Kept— "Bottles."— Apricots,  etc. 
— Carob  Tree.— Mulberry.— The  Palm.— Pomegranate.— 
Sycamore. 

XXI.  Shepherds  and  Flocks i59 

Shepherd  Life.— A  Poet.— His  Loving  Care.— Syrian  Sheep. 
—Stray  Sheep.— "Rod  and  Staff."— Sheepfolds.— Flocks.— 
"Broad-tailed"  Sheep.— Fattening  Sheep.— Shepherd  Dog. 
—The  Wool  and  Skin.— Black  Sheep  and  Goats.— Goats.— 
Flocks  of  Goats.— Wild  Goat.— Separating  Flocks.— Wealth 

in  Flocks  and  Herds.— Shearing.— Trumpets.— Shepherd's 
Peril. — ^Watering  Flocks. 

XXII.  Cattle  and  Camels 176 

The  Ox-herds.— Wealth  In.— In  Sacrifice.— Stall-fed.— 
Mule  and  Ass.— The  Horse.— Wheeled  Carriages.— War 
Horse.— The  Camel— The  "  Ship  of  the  Desert." 

XXIII.  Fishing  and  Hunting 184 

S3Tian  Monopoly.— Fish  Nets. — Drawnet. — Fishing  by 
Night. — Fish  Laws. — Modes  of  Fishing. — Hunting. — 
Snares. 


CONTENTS. 


XXIV.  Traveling  in  Oriental  Lands 191 

Caravan. — On  Camel  Back. — Camel's  Habits. — The  S\Vift 
Camel. — Camel    Mounting — Going   in    Crowds. — Roads. — 

On  Foot. — Travelers'  Supplies. — Children  Traveling. — 
Girdle  and  Staff. — Ships. — By  Mules. — Footman  Runner. 

XXV.  W.A.RFARE 202 

Warrior. — Body  Guard. — Oriental  Sword. — The  Dagger. — 
African  Warriors. — Covenant  of  Peace. — Spoils. — Warrior 
Customs. 

XXVI.  Mechanical  Arts 208 

Metal  and  Wood  Workers. — Workshops  Rare. — Metal  Ves- 
sels.— Silversmiths.  —  Carpenter.  —  Crude  Tools.  —  Oriental 
Skill. 

XXVII.  Trades 213 

Honorable  and  Humble. — Master  Craftsmen. — Sit  at  Work. 

— Pay  in  Advance. — Trades  Guilds. — Tent-making. — 
"Bargains." — Basket  Makers. 

XXVIII.  Music  and  Musical  Instruments 217 

What  is  Good  Music? — Oriental  Musical  Scale. — Hindu 
Musical  Scale. — Musical  Instruments. — Three  Kinds. — 
Wind  Instruments. — Of  Percussion. — Songs. — The  Viol. 

XXIX.  Oriental  Writing 225 

Public  Scribes. — Samaritan  Law. — Seals. — Traditions — 
How  Kept. — Records. — Books. — Letters. — How  Written. — 
Reed  Pens,  etc. 

XXX.  Buying  and  Selling — Shops,  Bazaars 232 

Shops. — Bu}-ing. — Bazaars. — Markets. — Credit. — The   Cafe. 

— ^Women  Shoppers. — Silos. — Shops  in  Clusters. — Some 
Odd  Customs. — Fairs. 

XXXI.  Oriental  Dwellings 239 

Cave  Dwellers. — Rock  Refuge. — Nomads. — Tents. — Family 
Tent. — Tent  Apartments. — Groups  of  Tents. — Hebrew  Tent 
Life. — Beside  Ruins  and  Groves. — Charm  of  Tent  Life. — 

In  the  Tent  Door. — Tent  Furniture. 

XXXII.  Oriental  Houses 247 

Houses. — Peasants'  Houses. — Building  Material. — Rooms  of 
House.  —  The  Roof.  —  The  Court.  —  Entrance.  —  Gates. — 
Sleeping  Rooms. — Beds. — Plan  of  Egyptian  House. — Of 
Bricks. — Syrian  Housetops. — "Upper  Room." — IMud  Walls. 

— Staircase. — In  India. 

XXXIII.  Khan,  Caravansary,  Inn,  Storehouse 256 

Kinds  of  Inns. — Bare  Lodges. — Castle  Khan. — Persian 
Khans. — Syrian  Inns. — Bethlehem  Inn. — India  Rests. — 
Storehouses. — Store  Pits. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

XXXIV.  Property,  Taxes,  Righting  Wrongs 262 

Personal  Rule. — Divine  Right. — Head  of  All. — Not  Law,  but 
Custom. — Possessions. — Tenants'  Rights. — Rights  in  Cities. 

— Inheritance  Customs. — Taxes. — An  Example  of  Robbery. 
■ — Suffer  vs.  Suits. — The  Victim. — Criminals — Bribes. — Ex- 
tortions.— Debtors. — Prisons. — The  Jailer. 

XXXV.  Religion  and  Morals 272 

All  Devout. — Not  Pious. — Not  Moral. — Profane. — Display 
in  Worship. — Saints  and  Ploly  Men. — Belief  in  Unseen. — 
Nature  Worship. — God's  Friend. — A  Covenant. — An  Ex- 
pression of  Worship. — Religious  Membership. — Ecclesiastical 
Organizations. — Pillars  of  Worship. 

XXXVI.  Prayers  and  Vows 279 

Use  of  God's  Name. — Personal  Names. — God  a  "Charm." — 
Prayer. — Gestures  in   Prayer. — Praying  in  Public. — Prayer 

by  Moonlight. — Custom  Universal. — Prayer  Beads  and 
Cylinders. — Repetitions. — At  Mosque. — Order  a  Merit. — 
Prayer  Places. — Prayer  Postures. — Dervishes. — At  Prayer. — 
Beggar  Dervishes. — Howling  Dervishes. — "Dancing"  Der- 
vishes.— Mystics. 

XXXVII.  Offerings  and  Sacrifices 288 

Votive  Offerings. — Thanksgiving. — Of  Fruits,  etc. — In  India. 

— Vicarious. — To  Saints. — Sacrifice,  Covenant. — Meditation. 
— Conclusion. 

Index 293 


FOREWORD. 

The  Book  through  which  the  one  great  religion  of  the  world 
has  come  to  mankind  is  thoroughly  Oriental.  Every  part  of 
the  Bible  is  saturated  with  the  peculiar  traits,  modes  of  thought, 
customs,  manner  of  speech,  and  imagery  that  characterize 
Eastern  life.  A  knowledge  of  these  is  essential  to  a  clear  under- 
standing and  right  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Once  it  was  common  to  speak  of  the  "unchanging  East," 
as  scholars  and  explorers  were  wont  to  do  in  the  last  generation. 
For  centuries  there  was  indeed  a  persistence  of  the  same  man- 
ners and  customs,  partly  due  to  the  physical  characteristics  of 
the  lands  of  the  East,  and  partly  to  the  indisposition  of  the 
people  for  change.     That  day  has  passed. 

There  is  no  portion  of  the  globe  where  such  marvelous  and 
radical  changes  are  going  on  to-day  as  in  the  Orient.  In 
Jerusalem,  in  Joppa,  and  in  Damascus  one  sees  the  railway 
locomotive,  hears  the  click  of  the  telegraph,  and  may  talk  to  his 
distant  neighbor  through  the  telephone.  Soon  it  will  be  im- 
possible for  a  traveler  to  discover  simple  native  Oriental  Life. 
Even  now  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  village  or  people  in  any  Bible 
land  so  remote  as  to  be  free  from  the  influences  of  Western  life, 
which  are  sweeping  through  all  Oriental  countries.  Native 
Oriental  customs  are  ahready  modified  by  these  influences  to  an 
extent  little  suspected  by  many  even  of  the  Orientals  themselves. 

Another  common  view  among  the  "laity"  and  learned  was 
that  the  early  biblical  narratives  described  human  life  in  a 
primitive  stage.  But  we  now  know  that  Abraham  was  "com- 
paratively a  modem  man,"  scarcely  midway  between  the  pres- 
ent and  the  infancy  of  the  human  race.  Early  records  of 
peoples  in  the  Euphrates  and  in  the  Nile  valleys  show  a  high 
state  of  culture,  civilization,  and  social  Ufe  thousands  of  years 

9 


lO  FOREWORD. 

before  Abraham.  The  biblical  books  in  their  color  fit  in  a 
wonderful  way  into  these  newly  discovered  historic  facts. 

Moreover,  the  strange  manners  and  customs  in  Oriental  life 
produced  opposite  modes  of  thought  and  idioms  of  speech 
from  those  of  the  West,  and  which  l^nd  constant  expression  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures. 

For  years  the  author  has  had  missionaries,  travelers,  and 
natives  of  Oriental  lands  gathering  these  characteristics  of 
Eastern  life  (which  would  make  many  volumes)  for  the  pur- 
pose of  throwing  light  upon  the  Scripture  narrative.  Dis- 
tinguished specialists,  as  the  late  Prof.  George  E.  Post,  M.  D., 
LL.  D.,  of  the  Syrian  Protestant  College  of  Beirut,  Frederick  J. 
Bliss,  Ph.  D.,  explorer,  who  uncovered  the  site  of  Lachish, 
J.  T.  Haddad,  a  native  of  Damascus,  and  for  years  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  Turkish  Government  in  Bashan-Land,  the  Rev.  J. 
E.  Hanauer,  a  lifelong  resident  of  Palestine,  and  others  have 
furnished  results  of  their  researches  and  knowledge  of  Eastern 
customs  to  the  periodicals  edited  by  the  author.  Hundreds 
of  books,  narratives,  and  reports  by  missionary,  consular,  com- 
mercial, and  educational  residents  and  observers  of  the  past 
century  have  been  carefully  gleaned  to  aid  in  presenting  a  clear 
idea  of  the  customs  and  life  in  various  lands  of  the  East.  Due 
acknowledgments  are  made  of  the  author's  indebtedness  to 
these  several  sources  in  the  footnotes  throughout  this  volume. 
All  this  material,  pubUshed  and  unpublished,  has  now  been 
classified  and  condensed  into  a  convenient  form  in  this  book  for 
use  by  the  Bible  student. 

While  we  can  no  longer  see  the  forms  of  living  men  in  almost 
the  same  garb,  and  speaking  almost  the  same  language,  as  in 
the  days  of  the  old  Hebrew  patriarchs,  it  is  still  true  that  "native 
Oriental  life  is  the  only  key  that  can  unlock  the  sense  of  many  a 
valuable  text  of  Scripture  and  bring  it  clearly  into  our  view." 

1 910.  Edwin  Wilbur  Rice. 


I. 


THE   ORIENTAL   FAMILY. 


1.  The  Bible— Oriental  Color.— E-very  book  of  the  Bible  is 
highly  colored  with  Orientalisms  of  thought  and  of  expression. 
A  right  apprehension  of  the  force  and  meaning  of  its  teachings, 
and  of  its  shades  of  truth,  depends  largely  upon  a  familiarity 
with,  or  a  good  knowledge  of,  life  in  the  East.  For  each  sacred 
writer  reveals  his  message  from  God  through  the  atmosphere 
of  Oriental  life,  manners,  customs,  and  modes  of  thought  as 
they  existed  in  his  time,  two  thousand  to  four  thousand  years 
ago. 

2.  Overturned  Customs. — For  Western  people  reverse,  upset, 
and  completely  turn  around  the  customs  and  habits  of  Oriental 
nations.  How  different  must  be  the  thought  and  expression  of 
the  East,  grovvdng  necessarily  out  of  these  opposite  ways  of  life 
and  manners! 

Occidentals  entering  a  church  take  off  their  hats.  But  when 
an  Oriental  enters  a  temple,  he  reverently  takes  off  his  sandals 
or  shoes  at  the  door,  but  covers  his  head  with  his  turban,  and 
conceals  his  hands  under  his  robes.  In  the  Orient,  women 
wear  loose  trousers  and  the  men  often  wear  skirts:  the  women 
wait  on  men  and  give  them  seats:  the  men  often  bare  their  arms 
and  neck,  but  the  women  cover  and  conceal  theirs:  they  paint 
their  nails,  while  their  Western  sisters  often  paint  their  cheeks. 
Shaving  the  head  is  a  fashion  in  the  East,  but  a  mark  of  prison- 
punishment  in  the  West.  To  shave  off  the  beard  in  the  East 
is  a  disgrace.  The  Oriental  shepherd  never  drives  his  sheep, 
but  leads  them:  the  carpenter  pulls  his  saw  and  his  plane  to- 
ward him  to  cut  and  smooth  the  wood,  never  pushes  them  from 
him.  The  Oriental  commonly  sleeps  with  his  head  covered,  and 
perhaps  his  feet  bare:  never  the  reverse.  He  refuses  by  throw- 
ing the  head  backward — not  by  shaking  it:  he  beckons  the  op- 

11 


12  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

posite  way  to  us  by  waving  his  hand,  palm  outward  and  down- 
ward, not  by  a  wave  toward  him.  A  girl  in  the  East  when 
married  keeps  her  own  name,  and  is  often  called  after  her  father, 
not  after  her  husband.  A  wife  follows  her  husband  on  the 
road  at  a  respectful  distance;  it  would  be  a  shame  for  them  to  go 
arm  in  arm  in  the  street.  In  the  West,  people  decorate  their 
walls,  and  often  leave  the  ceilings  plain:  the  Oriental  usually 
decorates  the  ceilings  of  his  room  and  leaves  the  walls  plain. 
Western  people  write  and  read  from  left  to  right  of  the  page, 
the  Oriental  the  reverse  way,  from  right  to  left,  or  from  top  to 
bottom  of  the  page.  The  Oriental  places  his  seal  or  signature 
attesting  a  document  or  letter  at  the  top  or  beginning  of  the 
sheet,  not  at  the  end  or  bottom  of  it.  Love  and  courtship 
may  follow  marriage:  not  precede  it.  An  Oriental,  finding  him- 
self at  the  tent-door  of  his  deadly  foe,  would  not  flee  from  it,  but 
probably,  boldly  enter  and  claim  and  be  granted  brief  hospital- 
ity and  protection,  the  host  defending  the  guest,  though  a  bitter 
enemy,  at  any  cost,  even  to  that  of  his  own  life.  The  Ameri- 
can in  mourning  puts  on  black,  the  Chinese  wear  white;  in 
greeting  he  may  shake  his  own  hands,  but  not  his  friend's. 
About  everything  is  done  the  reverse  way  by  Orientals  to  what 
Occidentals  do. 

No  study  of  the  Bible,  therefore,  can  be  satisfactory  that  does 
not  include  some  knowledge  of  life  and  thought  in  the  East. 
In  fact,  we  must  transport  ourselves  into  the  conditions  and 
spirit  of  this  Oriental  life,  difficult  as  that  may  be,  or  often  miss 
the  intent  of  the  divine  message  and  sadly  misinterpret  it. 
To  understand  the  working  of  the  Oriental  mind  in  religion  is 
more  difficult  for  us  than  in  almost  any  other  phase  of  his 
thought.  Fortunately,  this  study  is  attractive  from  its  many 
remarkable  contrasts,  and  will  increase  in  fascination  as  new 
vistas  of  meaning  and  knowledge  are  opened  to  those  who  pur- 
sue it.     Let  us  ask,  first  of  all: 

What  is  the  Oriental  idea  of  the  family? 

3.  The  "  Father:'— To  the  Oriental,  the  family  is  a  little 
kingdom  in  itself.     The   "father,"  or  head,  is  king — a  su- 


THE    ORIENTAL   FAMILY.  I3 

preme  ruler  in  his  realm.  The  Oriental  requires  a  "father" 
at  the  head  of  every  company,  every  band  of  traders  and 
travelers,  as  well  as  for  every  tribe,  community,  and  house- 
hold. The  Oriental  cannot  conceive  of  any  such  band  or 
company  without  a  "father,"  though  not  one  in  the  band 
may  be  kith  or  kin  to  the  so-called  "father."  They  may 
be  servants,  stragglers,  or  strangers  that  are  journeying  to- 
gether, yet  one  of  their  number  must  be  "father"  to  all  the 
others.  Any  other  idea  is  unthinkable  to  the  Oriental  mind. 
Their  idea  of  "father"  also  includes  a  wider  range.  What  a 
man  invents,  makes,  manages,  of  that,  too,  he  is  the  "father." 
Thus,  Jubal  "was  the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and 
pipe,"  because  he  was  the  reputed  inventor  of  these  instru- 
ments, and  Jabal  was  the  "father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents 
and  have  cattle,"  because  he  was  the  supposed  pioneer  in  that 
mode  of  life  ^ ;  not  because  either  of  these  men  was  the  natural 
father  of  all  such  persons.  Even  when  one  becomes  the  pre- 
server, protector,  or  helper  of  another,  he  was  called  a  "  father," 
as  Joseph  says  God  made  him  "a  father  to  Pharaoh."  The 
young  Levite became  "a  father  and  priest,"  to  Micah  and  the 
Danites.^ 

4.  No  Courtship. — This  idea  of  "a  father"  shows  how  deep- 
seated  is  the  Oriental  conception  of  the  unity  of  the  family. 
Moreover,  the  Oriental  always  conceives  of  the  family  as  of 
God's  appointment,  "God  setteth  the  solitary  in  families."' 
Nor  does  he  think  of  love  and  courtship  as  necessary  before 
marriage.  His  idea  is  that  love  follows  the  formation  of  the 
family,  and  to  his  mind  is  as  natural  a  result  of  the  relation 
of  husband  and  wife  as  of  brother  and  sister.  He  has  no  con- 
ception of  our  artificial  and  modem  process  which  we  call  court- 
ship. The  parents  carry  out  God's  purpose  by  selecting  the 
bride,  and  arranging  the  betrothal  and  marriage  for  their 
children.  The  young  couple  acquiesce  in  what  is  done  for 
them.  The  dowry  is  not  in  any  proper  sense  to  be  regarded  as 
the  price  of  the  wife.     It  is  rather  a  wise  provision,  divinely 

■  Gen.  4  :  20,  21.  '  Judg-  17  :  10;  18  :  19.  '  Ps.  68  :  6. 


14  ORIENTALISMS   IN    BIBLE   L.\NDS. 

sanctioned,  for  the  highest  good  of  the  new-formed  family. 
This  conception  prevails  generally  throughout  the  East.  The 
divine  appointment  or  idea  may  be  obscured  among  other  than 
Hebrew  peoples,  but  the  germ  existed,  though  sadly  perverted 
in  development — a  survival  of  the  primitive  Edenic  state. 

5.  The  Son. — From  almost  every  point  of  view,  the  structure 
of  an  Oriental  family  is  a  puzzle  to  Occidentals.  A  son,  when 
he  is  a  child,  in  nowise  differs  from  a  slave,  though  he  is  lord  of 
all.*  This  seeming  paradox  grows  out  of  the  structure  of  the 
Oriental  family.  Prof.  Post  points  out  that  now  in  the  Orient 
the  women  of  a  monarch's  household  are  commonly  slaves. 
Many  of  the  women  in  the  households  of  the  pashas  and  sheikhs 
are  also  slaves.  "Thus  the  children  are  in  subjection."  They 
must  kiss  the  father's  hand  when  they  see  him:  must  always 
stand  in  his  presence  with  folded  hands;  eat  apart  from  him; 
in  a  word,  feel  and  act  like  slaves.  This  training  fits  the  child 
(so  they  think)  to  appreciate  the  transition  from  subjection  to 
the  rights  of  a  son,  when  his  days  of  tutelage  are  over. 

6.  The  Father  Rules. — It  follows  from  the  Eastern  concep- 
tion of  the  unity  and  indivisibility  of  the  family,  that  the  father 
never  ceases  to  have  a  responsibility  for  his  son's  conduct  as 
long  as  he  lives,  even  if  the  father  is  a  hundred  years  old  and 
the  son  eighty  years  of  age.  So,  too,  the  family  and  tribal  loy- 
alty prevailing  in  the  East  overshadows  patriotism.  Thus, 
when  a  Copt  or  an  Armenian  settles  in  Syria,  he  does  not  bte- 
come  a  Syrian,  but  remains  a  Copt  or  an  Armenian.  His 
sentiment  of  nationality  is  drowned  in  his  absorbing  affection 
for  his  family  or  his  tribe.  He  refuses  to  become  a  patriot. 
He  has  no  true  national  patriotism.  Out  of  this  Oriental  idea 
of  the  solidarity  and  selectness  of  the  family  springs  the  desire 
to  conserve  it,  and  the  social  law  binding  on  every  member  to 
defend  the  family  and  every  other  member  of  it.  Thus,  blood 
feuds,  fierce  and  bitter  and  of  long  duration,  constantly  break 
out  in  the  Orient. 

7.  Patriarchal  Rule. — The  prominence  of  the  patriarchal  idea 

>  G.-1I.  4  :  1. 


Sheikh  and  Wife,  Ramallah.  P.  13 

(Copyright  by   Underwood  &■  Underwood,  Neiv  York.') 


Jew  IX  Syria. 

iVesier  &  Co) 


V.  14 


THE   ORIENTAL   FAMILY.,  1 5 

in  the  Oriental  family-polity  underlies  their  entire  social  life, 
an  idea  difficult  for  the  Western  mind  to  grasp,  and  more  difficult 
to  define.  This  accounts,  in  part,  for  the  Jewish  race  maintain- 
ing a  distinct  type,  though  scattered,  yet  rarely  becoming  assim- 
ilated in  any  nation.  The  Oriental  has  a  similar  exclusiveness 
by  nature,  and  hence  is  rated  at  his  own  estimate  of  himself  and 
is  not  welcome  in  lands  that  seek  strength  through  the  homo- 
geneity of  its  people.  With  him  the  patriarchal  is  largely  at 
war  ^^ith  the  national  idea.  The  "organic  unity  of  the  race  is 
held  tenaciously  by  nearly  all  Orientals,"  and  this  idea  is  gen- 
erally limited  to  the  particular  race  to  which  he  belongs. 

8.  Semites  and  Hebrews. — Thus,  the  tendency  of  the  Japhetic 
race  to  colonization,  involving  the  separation  of  families,  by  the 
migration  of  younger  members,  has  been  noted  as  in  sharp  con- 
trast with  the  general  practice  of  the  Semitic  race,  which  for 
past  centuries  clings  to  the  old  world.  The  Jews  are  an  excep- 
tion to  the  general  social  trend  in  modem  history.  The  scatter- 
ing of  that  people  is  a  marked  instance  of  divine  providence,  and 
a  signal  confirmation  of  divine  prophecy.  Their  migrations 
have  been  generally  due  to  compulsion.  Yet,  true  to  Oriental 
and  their  own  constitutional  habits,  and  their  strong  family  and 
tribal  instincts,  they  do  not  easily  amalgamate  with  the  peoples 
where  they  sojourn.  Their  peculiar  racial  and  religious  char- 
acteristics are  tenaciously  held.  They  live  largely  by  themselves. 
There  is  a  Jewish  quarter  in  every  great  American  and  Euro- 
pean city,  a  proof  in  itself  of  their  Semitic  racial  character  and 
of  their  Oriental  origin. 

But  the  Hebrews,  in  common  with  all  Orientals,  and  with 
Western  civilization,  testify  in  their  history  and  by  their  blood 
that  the  family  is  the  unit  of  the  social  organism.  In  this  the 
divine  idea  survives  alike  in  all  civilized  races  of  mankind. 


II. 


FORMING   THE   ORIENTAL  FAMILY:    BETROTHAL. 

g.  Love-making  Unknown. — No  young  man  and  maiden  in 
the  East  would  think  of  courtship,  or  in  any  way  arranging  for 
marriage  of  themselves.  Love-making  is  an  unknoA^Ti  pastime 
among  Oriental  boys  and  girls.  Out  of  the  theory  of  the  East, 
that  love  comes  after,  not  before  marriages,  arises  customs  tend- 
ing to  restrain  this  sentiment  of  the  human  heart.  The  irre- 
pressible power  of  love  is,  in  part,  anticipated  by  the  parents, 
who  arrange  for  the  betrothal  of  their  children  at  a  very  early 
age.  The  selection  is  made  by  the  parents  on  both  sides,  and 
the  two  parties  themselves  may  never  look  into  each  other's  faces 
until  the  marriage  is  completed. 

lo.  GirVs  Gifts. — The  parents  of  the  girl,  by  immemorial 
custom,  see  that  she  is  prepared  for  a  proposal  of  marriage. 
From  early  childhood  she  acquires  necklaces,  rings,  ornaments, 
and  gems,  according  to  her  station  in  life.  These  are  gained  in 
various  ways — by  gifts  of  parents,  relatives,  or  guests,  and  are 
sometimes  earned  by  the  girl  herself.  To  these  she  adds  vari- 
ous kinds  of  embroidery  and  articles  of  needle-work,  to  wear 
on  her  person.  These  become  her  personal  property,  inalien- 
able, and  cannot  be  taken  from  her  without  her  consent. 
Even  her  husband,  who  may  divorce  her,  by  law  and  custom, 
is  forbidden  to  take  from  her  any  apparel  or  gems,  necklaces  or 
money,  or  anything  worn  or  carried  on  her  person,  even  though 
some  of  them  were  bestowed  on  her  by  himself.  These  are 
seen  on  the  merest  children  in  the  East.  Thus,  Miss  Whately 
tells  of  little  girls  in  her  school  at  Cairo,  Eg}-pt,  who  came  daily 
arrayed  in  coin-necklaces,  corals,  and  trinkets,  which  might 
be  the  only  support  of  a  girl  should  the  husband,  in  some  freak 
of  temper,  divorce  one  that  had  been  betrothed  as  his  wife. 
For  the  girl  could  retain  without  dispute  all  the.se,  and  they 
16 


FORMING   THE   ORIENTAL   FAMILY:   BETROTHAL.        1 7 

might  be  absolutely  necessary  for  her  support   and  her  only 
living. 

11.  Wife-seeking. — Moreover,  the  girl  is  married  generally  at 
twelve,  and  sometimes  as  early  as  seven  years  of  age.  She  may 
be  betrothed  much  younger,  when  a  mere  infant.  It  is  rare 
that  man  or  maiden  marries  outside  the  tribe  to  which  each  may 
belong.  The  father,  parents,  guardians,  or  elders  are  expected 
to  arrange  marriages,  betrothals,  and  dowry  contracts  for  the 
children. 

The  Oriental  modes  of  wife-seeking  vary  widely  in  different 
tribes  and  countries,  yet  they  are  broadly  alike  in  their  general 
characteristics.  In  Western  Asia  it  may  be  the  father,  of  his 
own  accord,  concludes  it  is  time  a  wife  be  sought  for  his  son. 
Or  perhaps  the  father  has  not  thought  of  it,  and  the  young  man 
says  to  his  father,  "I  have  enough  for  a  marriage  dowry." 
This  means  that  he  wants  a  girl-wife  found  for  him.  The 
father  approves.  The  mother,  or  near  female  relative,  or  a 
Khaiibeh,  proiessionaX  "matchmaker,"  is  employed  and  in- 
structed to  find  a  wife  for  the  young  man.  He  may  describe 
his  ideal  maiden  to  them  as  a  guide  in  the  search. 

12.  Matchmaking. — With  this  commission,  the  women 
"matchmakers"  make  diligent  inquiries  among  all  the  kins- 
folk respecting  suitable  girls,  and  then  start  on  a  tour  of  per- 
sonal inspection.  The  mothers  of  marriageable  girls  know  very 
well  the  purpose  of  the  visit,  though  they  may  affect  indiffer- 
ence and  ignorance.  The  women  "matchmakers"  call  on  the 
mother  of  some  daughter.  The  salutations  are  profuse;  the 
greetings  prolonged  and  exceedingly  complimentary.  The 
visitors  are  invited  to  sit  on  divans  or  rugs,  the  servant  brings 
coffee  to  sip,  the  conversation  drifts  around  and  into  every 
subject  but  the  one  for  which  the  guests  really  came.  Mean- 
while the  mother  conveys  a  hint  to  her  daughter,  in  another 
apartment  or  upstairs,  to  array  herself  in  her  best  attire. 

Having  exhausted  the  topics  of  interest  and  neighborhood 
gossip  in  talk,  and  spent  hours  in  dallying  about  many  things 
of  no  interest  whatever  to  either  party,  the  guests  venture  deli- 


l8  ORIENTALISMS   IN    BIBLE   LANDS. 

cately  to  hint  at  the  real  business.  The  matron  perhaps  asks  of 
the  hostess,  "Do  you  happen  to  know  or  have  you  heard  of  any 
kinsfolk  having  marriageable  girls?"  "None  suitable  for  so 
highly  exalted  a  family  as  that  of  her  caller,"  is  the  diplomatic 
reply.  Nothing  daunted,  the  guest  proceeds,  "IVIight  we  have 
the  high  pleasure  to  look  upon  the  beautiful  face  of  the  lovely 
Aniseh,  Maryam,  Haddeseh?"  or  whatever  may  be  the  name 
of  the  daughter.  With  tactful  diplomacy,  the  mother  replies, 
"Ah,  Aniseh  is  very  young  and  bashful."  Pressed  further,  she 
exclaims  in  well-feigned  alarm,  "My  daughter  would  faint  dead 
away  to  look  upon  so  distinguished  a  person  as  the  mother  of 
Yakob  Ibriham,"  But  the  guest  is  persistent,  she  will  not  be 
put  off,  so  the  mother  calls  to  her  daughter.  The  daughter 
hears,  but  appears  not.  She  knows  the  custom  too  well  to 
make  unseemly  haste  in  such  a  matter.  The  mother  urged, 
calls  again  and  again  in  vain.  Finally,  after  five  or  six  urgent 
pleas,  the  daughter  comes  in,  closely  veiled,  bearing  coffee  on  a 
tray,  and  shyly  offers  the  customary  second  cup  to  the  guests. 
They  courteously  decUne  to  accept  it  until  they  may  see  the 
maiden's  pretty  face.  If  they  accepted  the  second  cup,  custom 
would  require  them  to  leave.  Further  diplomatic  parleying 
follows,  but  the  veil  is  at  last  lifted  and  the  personal  inspection 
begins.  The  girl's  features,  form,  hair,  eyes,  nose,  lips,  cheeks, 
and  expression  are  carefully  noted  by  the  women  "inspectors," 
the  parting  cup  of  coffee  accepted,  and  the  guests  depart  home  to 
report.  If  not  satisfactory,  other  tours  will  be  made  to  other 
families,  until  the  "matchmakers"  are  pleased.  Then  on  their 
return,  with  high-sounding  Oriental  phrases,  they  proclaim  the 
girl's  beauty  and  marvelous  charms  and  attainments  to  the 
family  and  in  the  hearing  of  the  young  man.  If  the  "father" 
is  satisfied  with  the  report,  the  first  stage  toward  betrothal 
ends  and  the  second  begins. 

13.  The  Contract. — The  customary  deputy,  called  "friend  of 
the  bridegroom  "  '  is  engaged,  and  entrusted  to  make  the  nego- 
tiations, arrange  the  contract,  and  pay  the  portion  of  the  dowry. 

•  John  3  :  29. 


FORMING    THE    ORIENTAL    FAMILY:   BETROTHAL.         I9 

Sometimes  the  son  may  ask  his  father  to  secure  a  particular 
woman  for  his  wife,  as  Samson  did.^  So  Shechem  asked  his 
father  Hamor,  "Get  me  this  damsel  (Dinah)  to  wife."  ^  The 
deputy  or  "friend  of  the  bridegroom"  is  fully  informed  of  the 
stipulations  or  conditions  of  the  proposed  marriage  contract; 
entrusted  with  the  treasures  or  money  to  be  paid  as  dowry, 
and  usually  given  wide  discretionary  power  in  perfecting  the 
contract.  Thus  Eliezer  was  deputed  by  Abraham  to  find  a  wife 
for  Isaac,  with  full  power  even  to  choose  the  girl,  bestow  the  ring, 
bracelets,  and  dowry,  and  bring  the  girl  back  from  kinsfolk  in 
far  away  Mesopotamia.^  A  well-known  character  in  Palestine 
is  the  Wastt,  deputy,  or  "go-between,"  in  all  business  afifairs. 
Sometimes  the  village  Mukhtar  or  Sheikh  may  be  chosen  as  the 
intermediary  in  business  and  family  transactions.  Similar 
agents  are  employed  in  India,  China,  and  Japan.  Sometimes 
the  young  man's  mother  has  her  mind  upon  a  girl  among  their 
kinsfolk  or  neighbors,  and  watches  how  she  is  trained,  how  her 
daily  duties  are  done,  whether  she  is  careful  in  housework, 
apt  at  sewing,  embroidery,  and  what  are  her  other  womanly 
qualities,  and  especially  her  disposition  and  temper.  The  girl 
is  presumed  to  be  not  of  a  higher  family  than  the  groom;  she 
may  be  of  an  inferior  class  if  she  has  rare  attractions  of  person 
and  disposition.  What  Western  peoples  would  count  blemishes 
of  person,  the  Orientals  often  admire.  Thus,  a  cross-eyed  girl 
is  often  a  beauty  with  them,  and  is  lauded  by  their  poets,  es- 
pecially when  she  has  dark  eyes.  A  man  with  no  hair  on  the 
back  of  his  hands,  or  on  his  chin,  or  his  lip,  is  derided  as  ugly, 
and  one  with  a  bald  head  is  hooted  at,  as  Elisha  was  by  the  boys.* 
14.  The  Dowry.— The  amount  of  the  dowry  depends  largely 
upon  the  position  and  possessions  of  the  families.  With  the 
thrifty  peasantry  and  villagers  of  S3Tia  the  usual  dowry  is  equiva- 
lent to  $150  to  $250.  The  Mosaic  law  rates  the  dowry  at  fifty 
shekels— about  $30.^  The  sum  must  be  agreed  on  and  paid  in 
advance.      Parents  sometimes  shrewdly   make  an  exchange 

>  Judges  14  :  1-3.  •  Gen.  34  ■  4-  '  Gen.  24  :  1-67- 

*  2  Kings  2  :  2,  3.  '  Ex.  22  :  17;  Deut.  22  :  29. 


20  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

of  children,  and  thus  evade  or  reduce  the  cash  dowry.  The 
father  of  a  young  man  and  a  maiden  proposes  to  the  father 
of  some  girl  and  boy  that  their  children  be  paired;  his 
young  man  taking  the  other's  girl  to  wife,  and  the  boy 
from  the  other  family  accepting  the  maiden  for  wife.  Where 
the  parties  belong  to  the  same  tribe  the  dowry  is  more  easily 
settled,  than  where  one  family  has  sons  only  and  the  other 
marriageable  daughters  only.  There  often  is,  in  that  case, 
a  wide  difference  in  the  ages  of  the  couples,  but  it  is  no 
obstacle  in  the  East.  It  is  rather  counted  an  advantage  if 
their  bride-daughter  is  considerably  younger  than  the  groom. 
Oriental  custom  still  makes  the  parents  strongly  to  insist  on  the 
marriage  of  the  elder  before  the  youngest  daughter.  Laban 
pleaded  this  in  excuse  for  his  deception  in  giving  Leah  to  Jacob 
instead  of  Rachel.^  Where  the  young  man's  family  cannot  pay 
dowry  in  money  or  treasures,  he  serves  the  girl's  father  a  certain 
time  in  lieu  of  dowry,  as  Jacob  served  Laban.  In  any  case  the 
bride's  trousseau  or  wedding  costume  is  furnished  to  her  by  the 
groom  or  his  relatives. 

15.  How  Settled. — By  custom,  when  the  girl  chosen  by  the 
mother  pleases  the  father  of  the  young  man,  they  ascertain 
whether  the  father  of  the  girl  will  entertain  a  proposal  for  the 
alliance.  If  so,  a  deputy  or  "friend"  is  sent,  who,  with  the 
father  of  the  groom  or  some  male  relative,  plans  a  call  on  the 
other  household,  and  as  near  meal-time  as  possible.  In  some 
lands  of  the  East  the  rules  of  hospitality  permit  one  to  refuse 
to  eat  until  he  receives  a  promise  that  the  favor  he  has  come  to 
ask  will  be  favorably  considered  or  granted.  They  are  asked 
to  "break  bread."  The  deputy,  however,  politely  refuses,  and 
their  mission  is  stated,  the  meal  is  then  partaken  of  by  all  parties, 
but  not  until  after  it  is  over  is  the  business  begun.  The  father 
of  the  girl  has  a  wakeel,  or  deputy,  also  to  speak  for  the  maiden. 
The  presents  for  the  bride  are  shown.^  The  two  representa- 
tives get  down  to  business  in  earnest.  There  is  generally  much 
haggling  about  the  amount  of  the  Mah'ar,  or  dowry.     The 

Gen.  29  :  26.  '  See  Gen.  24  :  30. 


Serving  Coffee,  Ramallah. 

{.Copyright  by  Underwood  &•  Underwood,  New  York.) 


r.  is 


FORMING   THE   ORIENTAL   FAMILY:   BETROTHAL.        21 

groom's  friend  offers  a  sum,  which  is  promptly  refused  as  ridicu- 
lously small.  The  sum  wanted  by  the  other  is  extravagantly 
large.  After  much  discussion  and  paring  down  of  demands, 
and  astonishingly  large  concessions,  a  friendly  agreement  is 
reached,  somewhere  between  the  amount  asked  and  that  first 
demanded.  Then  follows  more  bantering  on  other  terms  of  the 
contract.  The  groom's  "friend,"  who  has  hitherto  lauded  and 
praised  his  master,  now  assumes  a  deprecatory  tone.  In  strong 
derogatory  phrases,  and  Oriental  hyperbole,  he  wants  to  be 
assured  that  the  other  party  is  in  real  earnest,  and  not  fooling 
with  his  master.  Would  his  master  be  truly  accepted?  He 
might  be  lazy,  improvident,  beating  his  wife,  and  bad.  The 
girl's  representative  is  fully  prepared  for  this  turn,  and  promptly 
answers  that  she  wants  him  just  as  he  is,  will  gladly  be  the  young 
man's  slave.  Then  the  latter  retorts  in  vigorous  language. 
Does  the  groom  mean  what  he  says?  He  has  never  seen  the 
girl.  She  may  be  deaf,  blind,  sick,  worthless,  good-for-nothing, 
and  be  no  end  of  trouble  by  her  ugly  temper.  Again,  with 
Oriental  exaggeration,  the  "friend"  of  the  groom  avers  that 
he  takes  the  maiden  just  as  she  is,  as  the  companion  of  his  life, 
the  joy  of  his  eyes,  forever  by  his  side.  The  affair  is  settled, 
the  betrothal  agreed  to  by  the  representatives  of  both  parties, 
and  confirmed  and  witnessed  by  all  persons  present  (if  Moslem 
by  repeating  a  passage  of  the  Koran),  the  dowry  paid,  and  the 
betrothal  is  completed.  If  the  groom  is  going  on  a  journey  the 
marriage  contract  may  be  written,  formally  signed,  and  delivered 
to  the  girl's  representative.  Usually,  one-half  or  two-thirds  of 
the  dowry  is  paid  to  bind  the  contract  and  the  remainder  held  in 
reserve  to  be  paid  the  wife  in  case  of  the  husband  divorcing  her 
or  of  his  death.  If  the  girl  is  of  age,  she  may  choose  her  own 
wakeel,  and  her  consent  to  the  alliance  may  be  necessary,  es- 
pecially in  Egypt.  Sometimes  the  father  may  object  to  betroth- 
ing his  daughter  to  a  man  not  of  the  same  profession  or  trade 
as  well  as  of  the  same  tribe  with  himself.  When  the  betrothal 
is  simply  by  oral  consent,  which  is  more  usual  among  the  peas- 
ants, it  may  be  confirmed  by  the  gift  of  a  piece  of  money,  coin,  or 


22  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

a  gold  ring,  as  the  deputy  says,  "See  by  this  coin  thou  art  set 
apart  for  me,  according  to  the  law  of  Moses  and  of  Israel,"  or 
"Be  thou  wedded  to  me." 

i6.  How  Paid. — Sometimes  the  betrothal  may  be  confirmed 
by  a  more  formal  ceremony,  described  by  Lane.  The  groom 
and  bride's  deputies  may  sit  upon  the  ground,  face  to  face,  with 
one  knee  on  the  ground,  and  grasp  each  other's  right  hand, 
raising  the  thumbs,  and  pressing  them  against  each  other.  A 
fick'ee,  or  schoolmaster,  instructs  them  what  to  do  and  say. 
Placing  a  handkerchief  over  their  hands,  he  utters  some  words 
on  the  advantages  of  marriage,  and  adds  a  prayer  from  the 
Koran,  then  the  bride's  ivakeel  repeats  after  the  master,  "I 
betroth  to  thee,  my  daughter  (Aniseh),  the  virgin  (or  Seyyib), 
for  the  dowry."  The  groom's  friend  then  says,  after  the  Jick^ee, 
"I  accept  from  thee  her  betrothal  to  myself,  to  afford  her  my 
protection;  all  present  bear  witness."  This  is  repeated  three 
times,  all  persons  again  repeat  a  passage  from  the  Koran;  each 
receives  an  embroidered  handkerchief;  the  one  given  the  Jick^ee 
has  a  coin  wrapped  in  it;  the  time  is  fixed  for  the  marriage  or 
coming  together  of  the  couple.  The  time  between  betrothal  and 
coming  together  of  the  pair  varies  mdely,  according  to  tribal 
and  national  custom.  The  Talmud  makes  it  a  year  for  a  virgin 
and  a  m.onth  for  a  widow.  The  reason  for  so  long  a  time  is  that 
the  girl  may  have  her  garments  provided,  says  the  Talmud. 
Meanwhile  the  girl  is  regarded  as  a  wife  from  the  day  the 
betrothal  is  settled.  Thus  Jacob  said  to  Laban,  "Give  me  my 
wife."  *  So  the  betrothed  maiden  is  called  a  "wife"  in  Mosaic 
law.^  And  the  man  that  had  a  betrothed  maiden,  though  he 
had  not  taken  her  home,  is  called  "an  husband."  ^  And  as  the 
Scriptures  imply,  Joseph  and  Mary  of  Nazareth  were  regarded 
as  husband  and  wife  after  betrothal.* 

17.  Second  Marriage. — The  mode  of  seeking  a  wife  described 
above  applies  to  the  first  betrothal  or  marriage  only,  that  of  a 
virgin.     The  second  betrothal,  or  that  of  a  widow,  is  much  more 

•  Gen.  39  :  21.  'Deut  22  :  25,  26. 

*  Lev.  19  :  20.  *  Matt  i  :  18-25;  Luke  1  :  36. 


FORMING   THE   ORIENTAL  FAMILY:   BETROTHAL.        23 

simple,  and  the  dowry  is  considerably  less,  and  the  whole  pro- 
ceeding attracts  less  attention  of  relatives,  and  the  parents  do 
not  attach  such  importance  to  it  as  to  the  betrothal  of  an  un- 
married daughter. 

The  dowry  can  be  partly  or  wholly  invested  in  bracelets,  and 
ornaments  given  to  the  bride  to  attach  to  her  person,  or,  in  some 
cases,  it  is  put  out  on  the  best  security  and  rate  of  interest. 
There  are  allusions  in  the  contract  letters  and  records  of  Ancient 
Babylonia  to  the  retention  and  returning  of  the  terhatu,  or  dowry, 
and  many  stipulations  respecting  payments  of  it,  before  the 
days  of  Abraham,  as  we  know  from  the  laws  of  Hammurabi. 

18.  Exempt  From  Duties. — In  some  Oriental  lands  the  father 
of  the  girl  presents  her  an  amount  equal  to  the  sum  given  by  the 
bridegroom,  and  the  two  sums  make  the  bride's  dowry,  the  total 
being  called  Mah^ar,  and  is  her  inalienable  property.  The 
betrothed  man  was  exempt  from  military  service  and  certain 
public  duties  that  he  might  be  "free  at  home  one  year."  ^ 

The  family  asked  that  Rebekah  might  "abide  with  us  a  few 
days,  at  least  ten;  after  that  she  shall  go."  ^  But  Jacob  waited 
seven  years  for  Rachel,  then  was  given  Leah,  and  served  seven 
more  years  for  Rachel.  No  fixed  time  between  betrothal  and 
nuptials  seems  to  have  been  customary  in  old  Babylonia,  but 
the  code  of  Hammurabi  requires  of  a  man  who  has  taken  a  wife 
that  a  "marriage  contract "  be  executed,  or  the  "  woman  is  not  a 
wife."  Custom  also  excused  these  young  persons  from  attend- 
ing burials  or  entering  tombs  or  cemeteries.  Between  betrothal 
and  the  "nuptials,"  or  coming  together,  no  private  intercourse 
was  permitted  the  betrothed.  All  communication  must  be 
through  friends  or  deputies.' 

»  Luke  14  :  30;  Deut  ao  :  7-24  :  5.  *  Gen.  24  :  55.  •  Ruth  4  :  9-11. 


III. 


MARRIAGE   PROCESSIONS. 


19.  Parades  in  Public. — Unique  features  connected  with 
betrothal  and  marriage  in  Oriental  lands  are  the  jubilant 
public  processions.  There  are  often  three  or  more  of  these 
street  parades  in  succession,  for  the  Oriental  takes  great  pride 
in  display.  Thus,  the  costumes  and  presents  for  the  bride  are 
the  occasion  of  a  street  cavalcade,  more  or  less  conspicuous,  in 
proportion  to  the  tastes  and  station  of  the  parties.  When  the 
bride  goes  to  the  home  of  the  bridegroom,  another  public  pro- 
cession is  necessary,  while  the  largest  and  most  brilliant  of  all  is 
that  of  the  bridegroom  and  his  company. 

20.  Bridal  Costumes. — Here  again  custom  widely  dififers 
among  various  Eastern  peoples,  and  among  the  same  people, 
because  of  the  wealth  and  circumstances  of  the  parties.  Thus, 
among  the  peasantry  of  Palestine,  remote  from  the  route  of 
tourists,  Elihu  Grant  witnessed  a  noisy  procession  of  women  and 
children  in  a  village  on  the  occasion  of  taking  home  the  wed- 
ding costumes  purchased  for  the  maiden  by  the  bridegroom. 
The  garments  were  borne  through  the  streets  with  shouting, 
beating  of  drums,  and  firing  of  guns,  to  attract  attention  to  the 
bride's  costume,  a  red  striped  dress  displayed  on  a  stick,  a  gay 
jacket  on  a  cross-stick  frame  to  hold  out  the  sleeves,  a  girdle,  a 
heavy  coin  head-dress,  and  three  mirrors,  one  on  each  arm 
and  one  on  the  breast.  This  Ze-ffeh,  or  parade,  was  accom- 
panied by  crowds  of  women  singing  and  dancing,  adding  to  the 
gaiety  of  the  occasion. 

Lane  witnessed  similar  processions  in  Egypt,  called  a  Zeffeh. 
Early  in  the  last  century,  among  the  middle-class  families,  the 
bride  was  escorted  in  state  to  the  bath,  headed  by  a  party  of 
musicians,  with  hautboys,  drums,  and  persons  bearing  trays 
covered  with  silk  kerchiefs,  having  the  linen  and  utensils  for  the 
bath,  ornamental  bottles  of  rose-water,  or  orange  flower- water, 
24 


MARRIAGE   PROCESSIONS.  2$ 

which  was  occasionally  sprinkled  upon  the  company,  and  a  sil- 
ver salver  or  vessel  for  burning  aloe-wood  or  some  odoriferous 
gum.  The  bride  was  sometimes  under  a  canopy  of  some  pink 
or  gay  color,  and  her  person  was  entirely  concealed  by  a  Cash- 
mere shawl,  which  was  fastened  by  jewels  of  emeralds  or  dia- 
monds. Two  or  three  female  friends  were  with  her  under  the 
canopy,  and  sometimes  in  hot  weather  one  of  them,  walking 
backward  before  her,  was  constantly  fanning  the  bride.  Among 
the  lower  classes  the  procession  was  much  the  same,  the  women 
often  uttering  shrill  cries  of  joy,  called  Zagant,  in  which  female 
spectators  joined.  This  occurred  usually  two  or  three  days 
before  the  nuptials,  or  wedding  feast. 

21.  Bride's  Procession. — The  bridal  procession  on  the  eve  of 
the  nuptials  is  celebrated  with  demonstrations  of  joy,  music, 
singing,  and  shoutings  by  the  women.  Thus  Prof.  Post  de- 
scribes this  custom  as  observed  in  Northern  Syria  and  the 
Lebanon:  "When  the  time  has  come  to  bring  the  bride,  for 
she  is  brought  to  her  husband,  he  usually  sends  several  of  his 
best  men  to  her  house,  who  bring  her  on  a  sumptuously  capari- 
soned animal  (camel  or  ass)  if  she  be  rich,  or  walking  if  she  is 
poor,  attended  by  a  crowd  of  the  family  friends,  who  howl  forth 
their  songs  of  welcome  and  their  prayers  for  the  happiness  of 
the  pair.  The  trousseau  and  household  goods  of  the  bride  are 
often  borne  before  her,  especially  in  case  of  a  bride  of  the  lower 
class.  Men  of  both  parties  play  before  the  procession  (which 
is  usually  at  night)  with  sword  and  target  practice,  dancing,  and 
with  \vild  feats  of  horsemanship.  The  bride  moves  very  slowly, 
and  if  walking,  affects  to  be  reluctant,  holds  back,  and  re- 
quires actually  to  be  pushed  along  by  the  attendants.  She  is 
closely  veiled,  and  it  is  a  disgrace  for  her  to  smile,  or  to  say  a 
word,  or  appear  to  notice  anything."  "The  women  are  re- 
ceived by  the  mother  and  sisters  of  the  groom  in  an  apartment 
quite  separate  from  the  men." 

In  Hauran. — A  native  Syrian,  Mr.  Haddad,  also  more  fully 
tells  of  the  bridal  processions,  as  he  saw  them  from  his  youth  up, 
among  the  peoples  east  of  the  Jordan  and  elsewhere.      "The 


26  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

bridegroom's  parents  and  older  relatives  prepare  his  house 
for  the  marriage  and  invite  his  friends."  "A  few  vi^omen,  with 
some  men,  are  selected  to  bring  the  bride;  the  women  to  make 
up  the  bride's  procession;  the  men  to  act  as  escorts  and  helpers. 
The  bridegroom  never  goes  with  this  party  to  bring  the  bride. 
On  reaching  her  home,  the  groom's  delegates  are  welcomed  and 
entertained  by  her  father,  brother,  or  head  of  her  house,  with  his 
guests,  who  are  his  relatives  and  friends,  invited  to  pay  the  bride 
a  good-bye  as  a  daughter  in  her  own  home.  The  bridegroom's 
party  ask  permission  to  take  away  the  bride,  and  also  invite  her 
father's  guests  to  go  with  them,  the  men  making  the  request  of 
the  father,  and  the  women  of  the  mother.  After  many  compli- 
ments and  ceremonies,  hesitations,  and  delays  the  requests  are 
granted.  The  bride  is  made  ready.  Though  all  are  invited 
from  the  bride's  house,  only  a  few  are  expected  to  go.  The 
women  go  in  the  bride's  procession  first.  The  bride  herself  has 
a  fine  mantle  covering  her,  and  a  bridal  veil  of  rich  embroidery 
and  border.  She  may  be  on  horseback;  sometimes  she  walks. 
The  procession  moves  very  slowly;  music  sounding,  lamps  and 
candles  lighted  in  the  hands  of  every  one,  and  long  torches  car- 
ried in  front  by  hired  men,  or  by  those  who  give  their  services  to 
the  bridegroom." 

"The  party  going  to  the  bride's  house  would  reach  her  home 
an  hour  or  more  after  sunset.  An  hour  or  so  later  they  would 
be  ready  to  return  with  the  bride  to  her  new  home.  That  may 
not  be  half  a  mile,  but  it  takes  about  an  hour  and  a  half  to  go 
the  short  distance,  because  the  bride,  in  her  coyness,  walks  so 
slowly."  "When  the  bride  arrives  at  the  home  of  her  husband, 
the  women  of  his  household  and  the  invited  guests  meet  her 
with  songs  and  the  burning  of  incense  and  conduct  her  to  the 
best  room;  the  bride-chamber." 

In  Egypt  and  India. — Lane  witnessed  similar  bridal  proces- 
sions in  Egypt,  having  some  added  features  of  peculiar  interest. 
Thus,  on  the  return  of  the  bride  from  the  bath,  her  companions 
sup  wnth  her,  singing  love-songs.  Later  at  night  the  bride  takes 
in  her  hand  a  lump  of  henna  mixed  with  paste,  and  receives  gifts 


Oriental  Bride  and  Groom. 

SWOUD    CEREMONY. 
{Copyright  by  Underiuood  &•  Underwood,  New  York.) 


V.  26 


Marriage — Well  Ceremony. 

SIGNIFYING   WIPE    IS   TO    SERVE    HUSBAND. 
{.Copyright  by  Underwood  Sf  Underivood,  New  York.) 


P.  26 


MARRIAGE  PROCESSIONS.  27 

from  her  guests,  each  one  sticking  a  coin,  usually  of  gold,  in  the 
henna.  When  the  lump  is  stuck  full  of  coins,  the  bride  scrapes 
them  off  in  a  basin  of  water,  and  selects  another  lump,  until  all 
her  guests  have  had  an  opportunity  to  make  their  gifts.  The 
henna  is  bound  with  linen  upon  her  hands  and  feet  until  morn- 
ing, when  they  will  be  dyed  a  deep  orange-red.  Her  guests  also 
dye  their  own  hands. 

The  procession  of  the  bride  {Zeffeh  El-Amseh)  may  be  pre- 
ceded by  two  swordsmen,  clad  in  drawers  only,  engaged  in 
mock  combat,  or  by  some  strong  man  carrying  an  extraordinary 
burden  of  two  hundred  pounds'  weight,  or  one  performing  re- 
marbable  conjurer's  tricks.  In  India,  marriage  processions  at 
night,  with  torches,  lamps,  and  vessels  of  oil,  are  common 
sights,  noticed  by  various  travelers,  during  the  past  century. 
Trumbull  mentions  a  bride's  procession  in  the  Arabian  desert, 
which  he  supposes  ended  by  the  bridegroom  meeting  the 
bride  and  lifting  her  over  the  threshhold  of  his  home.  But 
he  did  not  witness  this  act.  Where  the  groom  leaves  his  house 
especially  to  avoid  meeting  his  bride  on  her  first  entrance  to  his 
home,  and  until  after  the  nuptial  feast,  as  native  observers  say 
is  usual,  the  "threshhold  greeting"  would  be  exceptional,  and 
by  no  means  universal.  Thus  the  author  of  "Scripture 
Manners  and  Customs  "  affirms  that  the  bride  and  bridegroom 
do  not  meet  at  his  arrival,  each  being  engaged  apart  until  the 
afternoon  of  the  marriage  day;  this  is  affirmed  as  the  custom  in 
Eastern  Syria  also,  as  Haddad  stated. 

22.  Bridegroom'' s  Procession. — Whoever  would  see  the 
splendor  of  an  Oriental  wedding,  must  attach  himself  to  the 
party  or  procession  of  the  bridegroom.  If  he  is  some  great 
man,  the  rejoicings  and  proceedings  are  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent kind.  No  cards  or  written  ui\'itations  are  sent,  the  man 
invites  his  friends  by  a  personal  call  or  through  a  servant.  The 
invitation  is  repeated.  "  When  the  hour  approached, "  says 
Prof.  Post,  "the  guests,  dressed  in  brightest  colors,  the  married 
women  loaded  with  jewels  and  flowers,  and  the  girls  more 
simply  dressed,  throng  the  house  of  the  bridegroom.    The  men 


28  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

are  received  in  a  room  or  court  by  the  groom  and  his  (male) 
relatives;  the  women  in  the  women's  apartment  by  his  mother. 
These  visits  are  continued  one  or  more  days  before  the  actual 
wedding  feast.  Each  guest  is  received  by  all  in  the  room  stand- 
ing. If  intimate,  the  host  kisses  him  on  both  cheeks  and  em- 
braces him.  The  guest,  on  taking  his  seat,  gives  a  wave  of  his 
hand,  and  inclination  of  the  head  to  each  of  the  assembly. 
Sweetmeats,  sherbet,  cakes,  and  coffee  may  be  served.  Gipsies 
are  usually  hired  to  play  during  the  days  of  festivity,  and  those 
that  dance  and  play  with  sword  and  shield.  The  music  is  over- 
powering to  Western  taste,  but  seems  inspiring  to  that  of  the 
East."  "In  their  apartment  the  women  shriek  and  howl  their 
congratulations  and  improvise  impressive  rhymes,  often  of  a 
very  obscene  character." 

The  bridegroom's  procession  in  Eastern  Syria  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  IVIr.  Haddad,  a  native  of  Damascus:  "Before  the 
procession  of  the  bride  reaches  the  house  of  the  bridegroom 
he  will  be  taken  out  of  his  home,  the  young  men  taking  him  in  a 
procession  around  the  town,  out  one  way  and  back  by  another." 
To  go  out  and  return  the  same  way  indicates  bad  luck  or  failure. 
"To  go  in  a  circle"  is  a  good  omen.  The  bridegroom  may 
make  as  an  excuse  that  he  goes  to  prayer,  to  the  mosque,  to 
church,  to  the  barber,  or  to  be  robed  in  wedding  garments. 
The  real  purpose  is  "to  busy  him  outside,  so  that  the  bride  will 
reach  his  home  while  he  is  absent  from  it."  "  If  he  were  in  the 
house  on  her  arrival,  he  must  welcome  her,  which  would  lessen 
his  dignity.  If  she  is  in  the  house,  she  can  welcome  him, 
as  being  herself  the  lady  of  the  house.  The  bridegroom's  pro- 
cession is  headed  by  persons  with  torchlights,  a  band  of  music, 
men  shooting  guns,  playing  sham  fights  with  swords  and  shields, 
and  singing,  every  man  with  wax  candle  or  lamp,  walking  ver}' 
slowly.  They  pass  a  friend's  house,  where  they  may  be  en- 
tertained, sprinkled  with  perfumes,  and  receive  congratula- 
tions. It  is  expected  that  every  house  of  friends  and  acquaint- 
ances will  have  a  supply  of  water  of  roses  and  other  perfumes 
and  sprinklers  for  wedding  processions." 


MARRIAGE   PROCESSIONS.  29 

23.  The  Midnight  Call.— As  the  bridegroom  does  not  return 
until  tiie  bride  and  her  procession  have  had  ample  time  to  reach 
there  before  him,  his  party  will  be  coming  in  about  midnight  or 
later.  As  the  procession  approaches  a  cry  is  made  (_''halil"), 
and  a  band  of  maidens,  with  sweet  voices  (paid  voices  or  rela- 
tives), rush  out  from  his  house  to  meet  him,  with  lamps,  songs  of 
praise,  congratulations,  and  welcome.  Or,  the  band  may  be 
waiting  by  the  way,  as  the  ten  virgins  of  the  parable. 

The  bridegroom  and  all  who  properly  belong  to  the  pro- 
cession enter  the  house,  and  immediately  the  door  is  shut. 
He  may  have  expected  ten  virgins  to  greet  him;  five  of  them 
had  gone  to  get  oil;  "he  was  indignant  at  their  negligence,  and 
kept  them  out." 

Mr.  Haddad  notes,  "In  later  times  Christians  have  adopted 
Western  ways:  the  bridegroom  may  meet  the  bride  at  the 
church,  .  .  .  may  go  with  his  party  to  the  bride's  house,  and  bring 
her  either  to  the  church  or  to  his  own  house,  .  .  .  but  many  are 
sticking  to  the  old  custom,"  as  described  above,  and  "look 
upon  the  modernized  people  as  misbehaving,  and  criticize 
them  bitterly." 

Henderson  describes  a  Russian  Jewish  procession,  where 
Western  influence  had  changed  the  ancient  Oriental  custom. 
Thevenot  witnessed  a  like  procession  many  years  ago  at  Surat, 
India,  when  the  governor  of  the  town  married  his  daughter  to  a 
noted  man.  The  cavalcade  was  at  night;  hundreds  of  men 
marched,  carrying  torche.s  made  of  bamboo,  at  the  top  of  which 
was  an  iron  cup  containing  rolls  of  oiled  cloth,  made  like 
sausages.  Women,  litde  boys,  and  girls  each  with  a  bundle  of 
osier  twigs,  and  fine  little  wax  candles  on  their  heads,  were 
mingled  with  the  two  hundred  men;  baskets,  vessels  of  oil  for 
the  flambeau,  and  music  made  up  the  crowd. 

Lane  also  saw  many  such  processions  in  Eg}'pt,  the  men 
bearing  torches,  called  Mash'al.  This  was  a  staft"  with  a 
cylindrical  frame  of  iron  at  the  top,  filled  with  wood  or  other 
inflammable  material;  one  staff  bearing  three,  four,  or  five  of 
these  receptacles  on  cross-pieces  for  this  purpose.     Sometimes 


3©  ORIENTALISMS   IN    BIBLE   LANDS. 

a  great  frame  lantern,  having  sixty  or  more  lamps  in  circles,  or 
one  above  another  and  made  to  revolve,  were  carried  by  two 
bearers;  the  bridegroom  also  having  a  lamp  or  wax  candle. 

24.  The  Shut  Door. — Among  the  Hindus,  Mr.  Ward  saw  a 
like  procession  nearly  a  century  ago,  when  at  midnight  the  cry 
was  made,  " '  Behold,  the  bridegroom.'  He  came  from  a  distance 
to  Serampore.  All,  who  had  been  waiting  for  hours,  now  Ughted 
their  lamps,  and  ran  to  get  their  stations  in  the  procession. 
Some  had  lost  their  Ughts  and  were  too  late.  The  bridegroom 
was  carried  in  the  arms  of  a  friend  to  a  superb  seat,  then  went 
into  the  house;  the  door  was  immediately  shut  and  guarded. 
I  wth  others  expostulated  with  the  door-keepers,  hut  i?i  vain."  ^ 
Music,  lamps,  and  torches  are  important  features  in  true  Oriental 
wedding  processions.  They  illustrate  many  Bible  passages: 
Laban  asks  of  Jacob,  "Wherefore  didst  thou  ...  not  tell  me, 
that  I  might  have  sent  thee  away  with  mirth,  and  with  songs, 
with  tabret,  and  with  harp?"  ^  The  Psalmist  describes  a  royal 
bride,  "The  King's  daughter  within  the  palace  is  all  glorious: 
Her  clothing  is  inwrought  with  gold.  She  shall  be  led  unto 
the  king  in  broidered  v/ork."  ^  The  bride's  costume  and  girdle 
Jeremiah  uses  in  reproving  the  people:  "Can  a  virgin  forget 
her  ornaments,  or  a  bride  her  attire?  yet  my  people  have  for- 
gotten me."  *  So,  again,  the  prophet  says  of  one  clothed  with 
"the  garments  of  salvation"  "as  a  bridegroom  decketh  himself 
with  a  garland,  and  as  a  bride  adorneth  herself  -with  her  jewels."^ 
The  writer  of  the  book  of  Maccabees  mentions  a  marriage  pro- 
cession: "Behold,  there  was  much  ado  and  great  carriage: 
and  the  bridegroom  came  forth,  and  his  friends,  to  meet  them 
with  drums,  and  instruments  of  musick."  ^  The  shouting  of  these 
processions  is  repeatedly  alluded  to  as  "the  voice  of  the  bride- 
groom, and  the  voice  of  the  bride  "  by  the  prophets  of  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament.^  Even  "  the  holy  city,  new  Jeru- 
salem," is  compared  to  "a  bride  adorned  for  her  husband."* 

«  Matt.  25  :  5-10.  '  Gen.  31  :  27.  '  Ps.  45  :  13.  i4,  R-  V. 

*  Ter.  2  :  32.  » Is,  61  :  10.  •  i  Mac.  9  :  39. 

'  Jer.  2S  :  10;  Rev.  18  :  23.  '  Rev.  21:2. 


IV. 


MARRIAGE   FEASTS. 


25.  Great  Feasts. — The  typical  Oriental  has  no  special  mar- 
riage ceremony  in  the  Occidental  sense.  An  Oriental  marriage 
culminates  in  a  festival  of  great  pomp,  given  by  the  father  of  the 
bridegroom.  It  usually  lasts  from  three  to  seven  days.  The 
feast  on  the  last  day  is  attended  with  no  little  splendor.  A 
preliminary  invitation  has  already  been  sent  to  the  guests,  and 
as  the  time  for  the  feast  arrives  or  approaches,  other  messengers 
are  sent  to  call  the  guests.  So  Esther  invited  Haman  to  a 
banquet,  and  "on  the  morrow"  sent  to  bring  him  unto  the 
banquet.*  And  in  the  parable  of  the  King's  Son's  marriage, 
the  king  sent  his  servants  "to  call  them  that  were  hidden  to  the 
wedding."  ^  So,  too,  in  the  parable  of  the  great  supper,  the  man 
"sent  his  servant  at  supper  time  to  say  to  them  that  were  bid- 
den "  perhaps  twice  before,  "  Come.  "^  Sometimes,  but  rarely, 
the  invitations  are  more  widely  given,  so  that  a  chief  of  a  village 
and  his  people  might  attend,  reminding  one  of  the  invitation 
— wisdom  is  represented  as  giving.*  This  will  be  further  noticed 
under  banquets  and  social  feasts.  In  ancient  Babylonia,  the 
marriage  took  place  at  a  house  called  the  "wedding  house"  or 
"house  of  males."     Later,  it  was  the  "father's  house." 

26.  Its  Magnificence. — Mr.  Haddad  tells  how  in  Eastern 
Syria  "  the  house  is  decorated,  sheep  and  oxen  slaughtered,  great 
bonfires  made,  rockets  sent  to  the  sky,  salutes  of  firearms  con- 
tinually heard,  bands  of  music  play,  dancing  and  singing  in 
the  court-yard,  crowds  coming  and  going,  congratulations 
offered  to  the  parent  of  the  groom,  the  guests  bringing  gifts 
of  every  kind,  further  to  supply  the  feast, — sheep,  oxen,  chickens, 
milk,  sugar,  coffee,  rice,  fruit,  incense,  perfumes,  even  vegetables, 
wood,  and  charcoal."    The  West  might  discover  some  new 

>  Esth.  5  :  8;  6  :  14.  2  Matt.  22  :  3,  4.  '  Luke  14  :  16,  17.  ■•  Prov.  9  :  1-5. 

31 


S2  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

wedding  gifts,  and  new  ways  of  placing  them  on  exhibition 
from  the  ingenuity  of  the  Orientals  in  these  matters.  Some- 
times all  the  dresses,  diamonds,  jewels,  and  showy  shawls  are 
loaded  upon  their  slaves,  who  attend  them,  to  show  oS  the  gifts. 
When  the  guests  have  come,  the  "ruler"  takes  charge.  The 
"ruler  of  the  feast"  being  before  selected,  usually  a  friend, 
is  in  a  conspicuous  dress  v^ith  wide  girdle.  He  sees  that  every 
one  is  provided  with  refreshments,  and  that  proper  honor  is 
shown  to  the  bridegroom.  Thus,  in  the  marriage  at  Cana, 
follo-uing  their  custom,  Jesus  directed  the  water  that  had  been 
turned  to  wine,  to  be  first  borne  to  the  ruler  or  "governor  of  the 
feast,"  that  he  might  decide  whether  it  was  befitting  the  feast.^ 
He  may  also  see  that  persons  of  note  have  a  seat  of  honor  given 
them.^ 

27.  lis  Variety. — The  feast  is  always  ver}'  sumptuous  in  a 
high-class  family  of  the  East.  Prof.  Post  graphically  reports 
what  he  frequently  witnessed  in  North  Syria:  "The  meal  is 
served  on  vast  platters  or  trays,  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter." 
"The  dishes  consist  of  immense  piles  of  pilaf"  [rice  cooked 
with  meat  or,  as  I  have  eaten  it,  with  goat's  butter],  savory 
sauces,  stuffed  sheep,  fowls,  soups,  lehen  (curdled  milk),  cheese, 
olives,  pickles,  and  Kihby.  Kibby  is  a  compound  of  cracked 
wheat  and  meat  pounded  together  in  a  mortar,  a  layer  of  the 
compound  is  spread  on  a  copper  tray,  a  layer  of  sliced  onions, 
pine  seeds,  and  spices  placed  on  it,  covered  with  another  layer 
of  wheat  and  meat,  then  baked  in  an  oven  and  basted  with  fat, 
"a  rich,  delicious,  but  unwholesome  dish."  "Besides  these 
there  are  vegetables,  stuffed  mallows,  stuffed  and  fried  egg- 
plants, Mejedderah  (Esau's  pottage),  sweets,  and  fruits  of  im- 
mense number  and  diverse  flavors."  "Orange  flower-water  and 
rose-water  enter  into  many  of  them  and  some  are  flavored  \vith 
musk."  "The  feast  is  served  with  much  ceremony."  "As 
fast  as  one  guest  finishes  his  meal,  he  rises  and  gives  place  to 
another."  The  conversation  comes  after  the  meal,  and  "over 
the  pipes  and  coffee  which  follow." 

•  John  2:8.  '  See  Luke  14  :  9. 


"MARRIAGE  FEASTS.  33 

28.  Congratulations.— Tht  courtyard  is  usually  provided 
with  rugs,  mats,  divans,  and  bolsters  and  pillows,  while  lamps 
and  lanterns  hang  overhead,  brilliantly  lighted.  The  bride- 
groom has  on  his  richest  robes.  "The  Orientals  love  gay  col- 
ors. They  are  specially  skilled  in  striped  and  watered  patterns. 
The  sober  dress  of  the  West  is  not  admired  by  true  Orientals, 
both  sexes  dressing  in  as  bright  garb  with  as  strong  colors  as  pos- 
sible." There  are  often  "three  distinct  periods  of  congratula- 
tion "  during  the  festivities.  In  families  of  Moslems,  the  merry- 
making is  in  the  respective  apartments  of  the  men  and  of  the 
women  separately.  Near  the  close  of  these  festivities,  the 
bridegroom  is  placed  within  the  women's  apartment  or  near  the 
entrance  facing  the  door.  The  bride,  arrayed  in  her  costume, 
veil,  bracelets,  bells,  rings,  and  chains,  is  presented  or  seated 
where  the  bridegroom  can  view  her.  Sometimes  she  withdraws 
and  comes  again  arrayed  in  a  different  costume,  and  this  is 
done  seven  or  more  times.  The  last  time  she  comes,  the  groom 
steps  forward  at  a  signal  from  his  mother,  lifts  the  veil  from 
his  bride's  face,  throws  it  over  her  right  shoulder,  and  looks  upon 
her  face,  perhaps  for  the  first  time  of  his  life.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  that  all  these  customs,  under  Moslem  influ- 
ence have  become  more  rigidly  exclusive  in  regard  to  woman. 
Her  condition  has  been  steadily  sinking  in  Oriental  lands  for 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  except  where  Christianity  has  come 
in  to  better  her  position.  Thus,  the  parading  of  the  bride  in 
successive  bridal  costumes  is,  by  no  means,  universal  or  wde- 
spread  among  Orientals.  The  same  is,  in  a  measure,  true  in 
respect  to  some  other  marriage  customs.  In  fact,  they  vary 
widely,  as  I  have  before  intimated.  Those  given  are  common 
in  some  lands  and  tribes,  and  throw  light  on  similar  customs 
alluded  to  in  the  Bible. 

29.  Unveiling  the  Face. — The  veiling  and  unveiling  of  the 
face,  however,  is  a  very  old  Oriental  custom.  Rebekah 
"covered  herself"  with  "her  veil"  or  mantle  when  she  first 
saw  Isaac  coming  to  meet  her.  Yet  when  his  servant  met  her 
at  the  well  he  probably  saw  her  face,  since  it  is  said,  "the 
3 


34  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

damsel  was  very  fair  to  look  upon."^  So  Tamar  "covered 
herself  with  a  veil"  to  deceive  her  father-in-law?  And  Boaz 
said  to  Ruth,  "Bring  the  "  veil  or  "  mantle  that  is  upon  thee," 
and  he  filled  it  with  barley  for  her.^  Thus,  the  veil  covering 
the  bride  made  it  possible  for  the  deception  upon  Jacob  in 
giving  him  Leah  at  the  marriage  instead  of  Rachel.  Similar 
deceptions  have  been  successfully  practised  in  modern  times 
among  Oriental  families.  Thus,  Hartley  mentions  one  in 
Smyrna,  when  a  young  Armenian  asked  for  the  younger  daughter 
in  marriage.  The  parents  consented;  the  marriage  festival 
followed.  The  festival  or  ceremony  was  perfected,  the  young 
man  was  married  to  a  closely  veiled  woman,  and  it  came  to  pass 
in  the  morning,  behold,  it  was  the  elder  daughter,  as  in  Jacob's 
case,  and  the  excuse  of  the  parents  was  precisely  that  of  Laban, 
"It  is  not  so  done  in  our  place,  to  give  the  younger  before  the 
first-bom."  * 

The  bridegroom  is  not  only  gorgeously  apparelled  and  per- 
fumed, but  often  he  wore  a  cro\Mi  or  chaplet  on  his  head. 
Thus  the  king  is  represented  as  crowned  by  his  mother  "in  the 
day  of  his  espousals."  ^  The  joy  and  mirth  of  the  companions 
of  the  bride  and  the  groom  were  used  by  our  Lord  in  speaking 
of  the  disciples,  "Can  the  sons  of  the  bridechamber  mourn,  as 
long  as  the  bridegroom  is  with  them  ?  "  ® 

30.  Wedding  Garment. — There  is  another  feature  of  interest 
in  marriage  feasts.  Some  state  that  proper  wedding  garments, 
as  an  outer  robe,  were  sometimes  provided  by  the  bridegroom 
for  guests  as  they  came,  when  he  was  of  a  noble  or  wealthy 
family.  Others  deny  that  certain  traces  of  such  an  Oriental 
custom  can  be  found.  Prof.  Post  aflSrms  that  it  is  not  now  the 
custom  to  furnish  garments  to  guests,  and  recent  tourists  in  the 
East  fail  to  note  any  such  custom. 

On  the  other  hand,  history  and  travelers  assure  us  that 
Oriental  princes  and  nobles  had  immense  stores  of  costly  ap- 
parel, and  that  these  were  often  bestowed  as  marks  of  favor. 

'  r.fn.  24  ;  16,  6<;.  «  Gen.  38  :  14.  »  Ruth  3  :  15. 

*  Gen.  29  :  25,  26.  'Song  of  Sol.  3:11.  •  Matt.  9  :  15. 


MARRIAGE   FEASTS.  35 

Thus,  Joseph  gave  each  of  his  brothers  "changes  of  raiment," 
and  to  Benjamin  "five  changes  of  raiment."^  And  Queen 
Esther  "sent  raiment  to  clothe  Mordecai."*  Naaman  took 
"ten  changes  of  raiment"  among  the  gifts  to  be  made  to  the 
prophet.^  Some  travelers  in  the  Orient  of  a  century  or  more 
ago  found  distinct  traces  of  the  custom  of  providing  robes  for 
guests  at  notable  banquets.  Thus,  Olearius  in  his  travels, 
says  he  and  the  ambassadors  were  invited  by  the  Persian  ruler, 
and  were  provided  with  splendid  vestments  to  hang  over  their 
dresses.  Schultz  describes  a  garment  furnished  him  as  "a 
long  robe  with  loose  sleeves,"  to  put  on  before  appearing  in  the 
presence  of  the  Sultan.  And  Chardin  related  a  similar  instance 
in  which  the  robe  was  not  used,  and  it  cost  the  subject  his  life.* 
The  evidence  is  that  an  outer  mantle  or  garment  was  provided 
to  cover  the  dress.  It  is  also  said  that  at  the  marriage  of  Sultan 
Mahmoud  each  guest  was  furnished  a  robe  at  the  Sultan's 
expense.  Other  travelers  and  natives  tell  of  feasts  at  which  the 
generous  host  provided  a  Kujtan,  or  cloak,  for  the  guest  to 
throw  over  his  dress.  A  native  Syrian,  Mr.  Wad  El- Ward, 
recently  speaking  of  marriage  feasts,  says,  "One  of  the  main 
preparations,  of  which  the  expense  is  defrayed  by  the  father 
of  the  bridegroom,  is  the  preparation  of  outer  garments  made  of 
some  cheap  material  of  any  gay  color  he  may  fancy,  so  that  a 
poor  man  having  no  clothes  with  which  to  deck  himself  is  pro- 
vided for,  and  if  any  are  found  without  that  garmient  among  the 
guests  the  governor  of  the  feast  will  reprimand  him  for  his  mis- 
demeanor. Such  a  custom  would  be  ground  for  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  man  without  a  "wedding  garment"  in  the  parable 
of  our  Lord.^ 

And  Dr.  Tristram  tells  of  attending  a  feast  at  Orfa,  in  Mes- 
opotamia, where,  in  an  anteroom,  there  was  a  great  pile  of 
light  cloaks,  one  of  which  was  handed  to  each  guest  on  entering, 
and  it  was  delivered  again  to  the  servant  on  his  departure.® 
The  Persian  merchant  provides  a  robe  for  the  guest  he  enter- 

•  Gen.  45  :  22.  *  Esther  4:4.  *  2  Kings  5  :  5. 

•  Burder,  Orient.  Lit.  I,  94.  '  Matt.  22  :  12.  •  Eastern  Customs,  p.  163. 


36  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

tains,  and  this  is  left  behind  when  the  feast  is  over.  Dr. 
Tristram  further  states  that  he  was  once  at  a  Jewish  wedding- 
feast  in  Hebron,  where  each  guest  was  suppUed  with  a  cloak 
as  he  crossed  the  threshold,  and  Dr.  Tristram  accepted  one  to 
conceal  his  European  dress.  He  adds,  the  custom  of  providing 
an  upper  garment  for  each  guest  is  not  extinct,  but  is  rarely 
practiced  now.^  Earlier  travelers,  who  went  into  Oriental 
lands  before  Western  influence  had  modified  the  habits,  give 
sufficient  evidence  that  such  a  custom  once  existed.  That 
recent  tourists  find  no  traces  of  it  does  not  overthrow  the  direct 
testimony  of  those  who  had  personal  experience  earlier  of  the 
prevalence  of  the  custom. 

31.  Display  of  Gifts. — Another  feature  of  Oriental  marriage 
feasts  is  the  manner  of  bringing  the  presents.  This  is  done 
with  parade  and  great  display.  Expensive  gifts  that  might  be 
borne  on  one  animal,  are  spread  out  on  four  or  five,  and  "jewels 
that  one  plate  would  hold,  are  placed  on  fifteen."  Thus, 
Ben-hadad  sent  presents  to  Elisha  borne  on  forty  camels.^ 
So  Jacob  put  a  "space"  betv/een  each  of  the  several  droves  of 
cattle  that  he  seat  as  a  present  to  Esau;  each  servant  at  the 
head  of  the  first,  second,  and  so  on  was  to  say,  "these  are  a 
present."^ 

32.  Capiuring  the  Bride. — /\nother  interesting  custom  con- 
nected with  Oriental  marriage  has  been  called  "Capturing  the 
bride."  This  appears  to  have  originated  with  the  primitive 
peoples  who  were  nomads  of  the  desert.  A  maiden  of  such  a 
tribe,  about  to  be  betrothed,  would  sometimes  flee  to  the 
mountains  when  she  knew  her  parents  had  betrothed  her. 
Then  the  young  man  was  put  upon  his  mettle,  to  pursue  and, 
if  he  could,  capture  and  win  her  for  himself.  If  she  was  unwilling 
to  marry  him,  he  might  fail  in  his  pursuit.  If  she  was  testing 
his  sincerity  or  bravery,  she  might  flee  with  coyness,  and  pre- 
tend to  escape,  until  satisfied  of  her  suitor's  mind.  Sometimes 
the  maiden  was  caught  before  escaping;  one  of  this  kind  is 
mentioned   by  Dr.  Fish,  in  which  the  girl  fought  like  a  fury 

» Eastern  Customs,  p.  84.  -  2  Kings  8:9.  •  Gen.  32  :  x6-xg. 


Nomads  of  the  Desert. 

{Vester  &■  Co.) 


P.  36 


Woman  with  Dowry. 

COINS    ON    HEAD-DRF.SS — JEWELS— RINGS— BEADS,    SYRIA. 
{Vest/r  &■  Co.) 


P.     23 


I 


MARRIAGE   FEASTS.  37 

before  yielding.*  Upon  this  primitive  custom  may  have  been 
engrafted,  perhaps,  the  later  one  of  capturing  a  bride  by  strate- 
gem  or  in  predatory  excursions.  Such  instances  are  given  in 
the  history  of  Israel,  as  in  Judges  21  :  21-23,  where  the  young 
men  of  Benjamin  caught  the  daughters  of  Shiloh  by  the  vine- 
yards.- 

33.  In  Old  Babylonia. — The  laws  of  old  Babylonia,  recently 
recovered,  throw  much  light  on  the  structure  of  the  Oriental 
family  and  upon  marriage  customs  before  the  days  of  Abraham. 
Thus,  it  is  clear  that  a  wedded  pair  and  their  dependents  were 
regarded  as  the  social  unit.  But  this  unit  might  expand  into  a 
clan  or  tribe.  The  young  man  could  not  take  a  wife  without  a 
bride-portion  called  terhatu.  His  father  provided  this,  or  it 
was  reserved  for  him  out  of  his  father's  estate.^  The.  woman 
was  given  in  marriage  by  her  father;  sometimes  by  the  mother. 
But  a  widow  could  remarry  at  her  own  will  any  man  of  her 
choice,  provided  her  children  by  a  former  marriage  could  care 
for  themselves.*  In  early  times  there  appears  less  seclusion 
of  women.  A  suitor  might  not  see  his  betrothed  until  marriage, 
but  this  is  unlikely  in  old  Babylonian  times,  since  the  laws 
anticipate  his  seeing  another  woman  and  wishing  to  abandon 
his  suit.  If  this  was  brought  about  by  the  intrigue  of  the 
suitor's  comrade,  the  latter  was  excluded  from  marrying  the 
girl  himself,  by  the  law-code  of  Hammurabi. ° 

Moreover,  the  old  Babylonian  Code  indicates  that  in  early 
times  the  prevailing  idea  of  marriage  was  that  of  one  man  to 
one  woman.  Though  polygamy  was  not  unknown,  it  was  ex- 
cused on  various  grounds,  but  the  cases  were  primarily  regarded 
as  exceptions.  Nor  was  love  wanting  in  the  Oriental  house- 
hold. It  would  take  us  too  far  afield  to  cite  the  legend  of  the  ro- 
mantic love  of  Ishtar,  and  the  many  thrilling  stories  of  affection 
and  love  with  which  the  old  literature  of  Egypt  and  Assyria 
abounds.  The  graphic  portrait  of  the  model  housewife, 
drawn  by  an  old  royal  poet,  King  Lemuel,  is  not  surpassed  in 

>  Fish.  Travels,  p.  25.  'Sec  also  Deut.  21  :  10.    ,.,    ,    ^ 

•Sec  Code  of  Hammurabi,  g  166.  *  Ibid.,  'i  172-  '  Ib'd.,  g  161. 


38  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

any  literature.*  No  modem  love-song  is  so  filled  with  the  aroma 
of  peace,  joy,  and  ecstacy,  springing  from  domestic  life  of  con- 
jugal love,  as  that  which  fills  the  antiphonal  cadences  of  the 
Song  of  Songs,  echoing  down  the  ages  in  the  old  Hebrew 
Scriptures. 

'  Prpv.  31  :  11-39. 


V. 


THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


34.  Training  a  Wife. — The  Oriental  household  is  a  complex 
institution.  The  bridegroom  brings  his  bride  to  his  mother's 
home.  The  theory  is  that  the  mother-in-law  should  train 
the  girl-wife  in  her  duties.  Practically  the  young  wife  becomes 
the  slave,  doing  the  drudgery  of  the  family,  under  the  iron  rule 
of  the  elder  woman,  who  is  the  mistress.  Thus,  the  house- 
hold may  usually  comprise  two  or  three  generations,  with  chil- 
dren, grandchildren,  and  a  retinue  of  servants  and  retainers. 
Abram  could  muster  over  three  hundred,  "bom  in  his  own 
house,"  to  rescue  his  nephew  Lot,  taken  captive  by  the  preda- 
tory Eastern  sheikhs}  In  fact,  his  household  seems  to  have 
become  a  clan,  or  wandering  tribe,  not  unUke  the  Bedouins 
now  sweeping  over  the  Arabian  deserts. 

35.  Primitive  Order. — Was  this  the  primal  order  of  human 
society?  The  old  law-code  of  Babylonia  reveals  wonderfully 
complex  social  conditions  long  before  the  days  of  Abram.  It 
is  held,  by  recent  scholars,  that  this  code  points  to  a  single  pair 
as  the  normal  early  relation  of  the  sexes  and  the  foundation  of 
the  family .2  Speculative  and  rationalistic  theorists  of  the  ag- 
nostic school  of  sociologists,  I  am  aware,  assume  that  promis- 
cuous intercourse  of  the  sexes  was  the  primal  relation,  and  that 
monogamy  was  a  late  development  of  the  human  race.  This  is 
pure  assumption  and  unproved.  It  is  contrary  to  some  facts 
which  they  themselves  advance  to  prove  their  evolutionary 
theory  of  steady  progress  rather  than  degeneracy  in  the  race. 
For  if  this  is  so,  birds  have  developed  further  than  man.  For 
the  higher  forms  of  bird  life  have  advanced  beyond  the  promis- 
cuous stage,  many  of  them  pairing  at  least  for  the  year.  It 
would  be   difficult  to  prove  that  either  Darwin  or  Herbert 

>  Gen.  14  :  14.  'Code  of  Hammurabi,  see  ??  141,  148,  149.  162,  163. 

39 


40  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

Spencer  ventured  flatly  to  deny  monogamy  as  the  starting-point 
in  the  human  family.  The  teachings  of  Christ  seem  emphatic 
on  this  point.  The  account  of  the  first  human  pair  in  innocency 
in  Eden  shows  clearly  the  Bible  ideal  of  the  family. 

36.  The  Social  U?2ii. — But  whatever  view  is  held  respecting 
the  relation  of  the  sexes  in  the  primal  stage,  there  is  now  sub- 
stantial agreement  that  in  the  moral  progress  of  the  race  the 
family,  where  there  is  one  wife  only,  is  the  social  unit,  and  the 
comparatively  even  balance  of  the  sexes,  so  far  as  kno\vn 
throughout  the  civilized  world,  seems  to  put  natural  law  against 
polygamy  and  on  the  side  of  one  wife  only  as  nature's  teach- 
ing, and  in  harmony  with  the  di\-ine  ideal  in  human  society. 

That  polygamy  and  concubinage  widely  prevail  now,  and 
have  existed  from  time  immemorial  in  many  Oriental  lands, 
may  account,  in  part,  for  the  degradation  of  woman,  that  being 
a  penalty  for  the  infraction  of  nature's  law.  These  do  not  dis- 
prove the  law,  for  nearly  every  law  in  nature's  long  code  is 
frequently  broken,  and  the  penalties  follow,  though  they  are  not 
ahvays  recognized  as  penalties.  Nor  are  they  completely 
deterrent  when  recognized;  the  law,  however,  is  not  thereby 
abrogated. 

37.  Childless. — Children,  especially  sons,  are,  and  have  been, 
ever  the  delight  of  Oriental  families.  The  greatest  calamity 
the  Oriental  can  conceive  of  is  to  have  a  childless  household.^ 
It  is  counted  a  mark  of  the  withholding  of  God's  favor.  The 
birth  of  a  girl,  however,  is  not  an  occasion  of  rejoicing.  Natives 
avoid  alluding  to  it  in  public  or  to  the  father. 

Childlessness  was,  and  is,  a  frequent  excuse  with  Oriental 
people  for  taking  a  second  wife  or  a  concubine,  who  seems  to  be 
regarded  as  a  wife  for  a  limited  time.  Thus,  Lane  ^  tells  of 
his  exclusion  from  a  certain  quarter  of  Cairo  (where  he  had 
engaged  a  room)  because  he  was  unmarried.  He  was  urged 
by  the  sheikh  to  marry  a  young  widow  for  a  stipulated  time, 
with  the  express  understanding  that  he  should  divorce  her  at 
the  end  of  the  period.     Yet  he  says  it  was  "not  very  common  for 

»  Gen.  31  •-  6,  7  ;  30  :  1,  3,  33  ;  1  Sam.  1:11.  *  Modern  Egyptians,  pp.  194,  235. 


THE   HOUSEHOLD.  4I 

an  Egyptian  to  have  more  than  one  wife  or  a  concubine  slave; 
the  law  (Moslem)  allows  him  four  wives."  In  ancient  Egypt, 
according  to  Wilkinson,  the  practice,  however,  was  unkno\Ma. 
Malcolm  tells  of  similar  limited  marriages  as  prevailing  or 
allowed  in  Persia.^  The  women  who  consent  to  such  marriages 
are  held  in  good  repute,  says  Dr.  Perkins.  Polygamy  existed 
in  the  patriarchal  period,  but  Noah  seems  to  have  had  but  one 
wife.^ 

Childlessness,  was  the  plea  made  to  persuade  Abram  and 
Jacob  each  to  take  more  than  one  woman  as  wife.  The  earlier 
code  of  Babylonia  permitted  the  custom,  and  the  law  of  Moses 
sought  to  regulate  and  mitigate  the  obvious  evils  of  the  custom. 
In  fact,  it  is  held  that  both  codes  disapprove  of  it  as  a  proper 
or  ideal  state,  as  shown  by  passages  similar  to  Lev.  18  :  18. 

38.  Divorce. — In  like  manner,  the  law  of  Moses  restricted 
and  sought  to  check  divorce  by  requiring  the  husband  to  "write 
her  a  bill  of  divorcement."^  Christ  condemned  the  custom  of 
divorce  prevalent  in  his  day,  based  upon  the  Mosaic  statute,  and 
limited  it  to  conjugal  infidelity.* 

Childlessness  was  also  a  ground  for  divorce  under  the 
Sumarian  law,  and  in  the  code  of  old  Babylonia.  But  the 
husband  must  pay  to  the  divorced  wife  her  marriage  portion  and 
the  bride-price.  Illness  was  not  a  ground  for  divorce  under  that 
old  code.  It  required  the  husband  to  maintain  her,  but  he 
might  take  a  second  wife.  The  wife  could  not  get  a  divorce  from 
her  husband  except  through  the  courts  in  patriarchal  times, 
and  in  non-Jewish  lands,  but  a  man  could  often  put  away  a 
wife  by  a  word.  The  most  stringent  of  old  codes,  in  other 
nations,  shows  how  far  in  advance  was  the  Hebrew  legislation 
over  that  among  heathen  peoples.  Even  now  in  Moslem  lands 
a  woman  may  be  divorced  without  legal  process,  at  the  freak  of 
her  husband,  but  she  can  carry  away  undisputed  any  amount  of 
gold,  silver,  jewels,  precious  stones,  or  apparel  that  she  has 
loaded  on  her  person.     So  she  usually  wears  all  her  treasures 

•  Van  Lennep,  p.  SSS-  '  Gen.  4  :  ig;  7  :  7. 

*  Deut.  34  :  1-3.  *  Matt.  5  :  33. 


42  ORIENTALISMS   IN    BIBLE    LANDS. 

and  wealth  on  her  person,  not  knowing  when  the  fateful  word 
may  be  spoken.  The  men  likewise  had  their  wealth  in  portable 
gems  or  treasures.  This  throws  light  on  the  remarkable  story 
of  Gideon  and  his  ephod.^ 

While  the  Oriental  household  now  generally  comprises  so 
many  persons — sons,  sons'  sons,  and  son's  sons'  sons,  children 
and  ser\'ants,  all  under  one  head  or  "father" — the  early  and 
primal  condition  implies  separation  from  the  patriarchal  home, 
the  new  couple  making  a  household  for  themselves.  The  old 
record  runs:  "Therefore  shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  his 
mother,  and  shall  cleave  unto  his  wife:  and  they  shall  be  one 
flesh."  ^  Whatever  may  be  or  have  been  the  customs,  this  is 
the  Bible  ideal. 

>  Judg.  8  :  24-26.  *  G«n.  2  :  24. 


VI. 


ORIENTAL  CHILDREN. 


39.  Joy  Over  Children. — Orientals  still  have  a  great  desire 
for  large  families.  The  birth  of  a  son  is  the  occasion  for  an 
outburst  of  rejoicing  and  congratulations  from  all  the  neighbors 
and  friends,  and  often  of  a  feast.  Servants  and  members  of 
the  household  vie  with  one  another  in  being  the  first  to  announce 
the  news  to  the  father,  with  more  or  less  formality  and  cere- 
mony, and  are  sure  to  be  rewarded  by  some  customary  or  special 

gift. 

But  the  birth  of  a  daughter  no  one  wishes  to  mention. 
Every  one  avoids  telling  the  father  of  it.  The  strong  contrast 
of  the  prophet  in  view  of  this  custom  increases  to  a  startling 
degree  the  force  of  his  expression.^  Yet  to  have  no  children 
was  the  bitterest  reproach  upon  the  wife.  So  Rachel  rejoiced 
when  Joseph  was  bom,  for  "God  hath  taken  away  my  re- 
proach. "  2  Elizabeth  gives  the  same  reason  for  abounding  joy. 
"The  Lord  .  .  .  take  away  my  reproach  among  men."^ 
When  the  first  son  is  bom  into  the  family,  so  great  is  the  joy 
and  so  notable  is  the  event,  it  is  heralded  through  the  community. 

40.  The  Son-heir. — One  reason  for  rejoicing  when  a  son  is 
bom,  and  for  no  congratulation  over  the  birth  of  a  daughter, 
is  because  the  Oriental  expects  a  son  to  be  a  help  to  his  parents; 
to  follow  the  father's  profession  or  trade,  to  continue  the 
family  name;  when  married,  to  live  in  the  same  home  and  keep 
the  inheritance  within  the  family.  But  a  daughter  is  separated 
from  her  parents,  and  when  married  goes  to  build  up  a  house  of 
another,  and  takes  her  inheritance  away  from  her  father's 
household  to  another's.  The  Oriental  sentiment  for  large 
families  and  pride  in  long  continuance  of  lines  of  posterity 
amount  almost  to  a  passion.     It  is  forcibly  illustrated  in  the 

»  Jer.  20  :  15.  *  Gen.  30  :  23.  '  Luke  x  :  25. 

43 


44  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

custom  of  the  Hebrews  for  a  man  to  marry  his  brother's  widow 
to  raise  up  children  to  his  brother.^  The  farther  back  a  family 
can  trace  its  lineage,  the  greater  is  the  honor,  even  to  one  hun- 
dred generations.  It  was  because  Abram  had  no  son,  at  the 
time  of  Jehovah's  promise  that  his  seed  should  be  as  the  stars 
in  number,  that  Abram  could  not  understand  the  promise.^ 
An  Oriental  holds  to  the  unity  of  the  race  and  the  indivisibility 
of  the  fam.ily.  A  grandfather  rejoices  to  build  a  house  and  to 
plant  a  tree,  for  his  kindred  will  dwell  in  the  one  and  eat  of  the 
fruit  of  the  other,  and  that  is  the  same  to  his  mind  as  if  he 
shared  the  house  and  ate  of  the  fruit  himself. 

41.  Family  Names. — The  Orientals  do  not  now  usually 
have  what  we  term  a  family  name.  A  boy's  personal  name 
may  be  Yakub,  and  if  his  father's  personal  name  is  Ibrahim,  he 
may  be  known  as  Yakub  Ibrahhn,  that  is,  Jacob,  son  of  Ibrahim; 
and  Ibrahim's  father's  personal  name  may  have  been  Yakub, 
so  that  the  grandfather  and  the  grandson  would  both  be 
known  by  the  name  Yakub  Ibrahim.  In  Egypt,  among  the 
Moslems,  boys  are  named  often  Muhammad,  or  after  some  of 
the  Prophet's  family,  Hhasan,  AH,  or  Otnar,  or  after  some  of  the 
patriarchs  or  old  prophets,  as  Ibrahim,  Isma'il,  Yakub,  Yusif, 
Daud,  or  Sulaiman.  The  girls  are  also  named  in  like  manner, 
Fatimeh,  Azizeh,  or  Zeyneh.  Some  names  might  not  indicate 
the  religious  belief,  as  KhaUl,  Aziz,  Ghanim,  and  feminine  ones, 
as  Amseh,  Habibch,  Halwah. 

There  are  several  ways  of  forming  names  in  Syria,  for  ex- 
ample: Yuhanna  abu  Daud,  John  the  father  of  David;  Yu- 
hanna  el  Haddad,  John  the  blacksmith;  Yuhanna  el  Khuri, 
John  the  priest,  and  John  Mark,  meaning  John  the  son  of 
Mark.  This  suggests  the  significance  of  Oriental  names, 
common  in  Old  Testament  times  as  now.  Thus  Selim  is  safe, 
Aruad  is  happy,  Anir  is  age  or  life,  ISIuhammad  is  praised. 

42 .  Why  Given  ? — Sometimes  boys  weak  at  birth  are  called  by 
the  name  of  lion,  tiger,  or  wolf,  thinking  they  may  gain  some 
of  the  strength  of  these  animals.     A  boy  bom  during  an  epi- 

'  Deut.  2S  :  S-io.  *Gen.  15  :  8. 


ORIENTAL  CHILDREN.  45 

demic  of  that  disease  was  named  Small-pox.  Girls  are  given 
names  which  signify,  Pretty,  Mild,  Mercy,  Sugar,  Happy,  and 
the  like.  Some  boys  may  be  named  from  trades  prevailing  in 
the  family,  as  Banna,  mason;  Bustdny,  gardener;  Hajjar, 
stone-cutter.  The  birth  of  a  son  may  be  marked  by  a  change 
of  name  of  the  father,  as  well  as  by  great  rejoicing.  Thus  a 
man's  name  may  be  Yohanna,  but  when  he  has  a  son  bom  to 
him,  named  Daud,  the  father  may  ever  after  be  known  by 
Abu  Daud,  the  father  of  David,  and  the  mother  may  be  named 
Ufmn  Daud,  the  mother  of  David.  Joseph's  name  was  changed 
by  Pharaoh  when  he  v/as  introduced  into  the  royal  household.^ 

Mr.  Baldensperger,  a  native  of  Jerusalem,  states  the  fellah, 
or  country  woman  of  Syria,  is  not  called  by  the  name  of  her 
husband,  but  by  her  own  name  and  the  name  of  her  father 
while  she  has  no  children.  Thus,  her  name  may  be  Fatme  and 
her  father's  Ali,  and  she  will  be  called  Fatme  Ali.  When  she  has 
a  son,  she  will  be  named  after  him.  Thus,  if  her  son  is  called 
Eh'mad,  she  will  be  known  as  Im  Eh'tnad,  "the  mother  of 
Eh 'mad."  Or,  a  more  polite  way  of  calling  a  woman  if  she  has 
no  children,  is  Im  Ali,  "  Mother  of  Ali, "  after  her  father's  name. 

43.  The  Babe. — Among  Orientals  it  is  not  common  to  call 
a  male  physician  at  the  birth  of  a  child.  Mid\^dves  only  were 
permitted  to  attend  women  at  such  times.  The  midv.ife  in 
the  East  is  a  stern  autocrat,  and  will  brook  no  interference  with 
her  orders  from  mother,  husband,  or  any  other  person.  Morier 
states  that  it  was  not  uncommon  for  a  peasant's  wife,  working 
in  the  vineyard,  to  go  aside  behind  a  rock  or  a  shrub,  give  birth 
to  a  child,  and  take  it  home  in  the  evening,  wrapped  and  slung 
behind  her  back.^  The  new-bom  babe  is  usually  washed  in 
salted  water,  sometimes  now  mixed  with  oil,  wrapped  in  a  cotton 
or  woollen  bandage,  or  a  swaddling  cloth,  about  ten  feet  long, 
wound  tightly  around  the  body  from  the  neck  dowTiward,  and 
pinioning  the  arms  and  hands  to  its  sides,  so  it  cannot  move  hand 
or  foot.  Some  think  this  wrapping  will  tend  to  make  the  child 
strong  and  healthy.     The  hands  are  bound  to  keep  it  from 

1  Gen.  41  :  45.  '  Vol.  2,  p.  106;  compare  Ex.  i  :  13-20. 


46  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

hurting  its  eyes  with  its  fingers.  It  is  easier  for  the  mother  to 
carry  the  babe  slung  on  her  back  when  wrapped,  and  she  feels 
it  is  safer  if  left  thus  in  the  cradle. 

Among  the  lower  and  middle  classes  mothers  usually  nurse 
their  owti  children;  among  the  rich  a  wet-nurse  may  he  hired, 
as  Pharaoh's  daughter  engaged  one  for  the  child  Moses.^ 
Oriental  women  in  some  lands  in  early  times  were  not  allowed 
to  wean  their  babes  without  the  consent  of  their  husbands. 
The  babe,  therefore,  was  usually  not  weaned  until  it  was  two 
years  or  two  and  a  half  years  old,  and  now  in  Central  Syria,  the 
last  baby  is  often  not  weaned  until  four  or  five  years  old." 

44.  How  Carried. — In  Egjpt,  and  often  elsewhere,  infants  of 
both  sexes  are  carried  naked  by  their  mothers,  not  in  their  arms, 
but  astride  on  the  shoulder,  or  sometimes  deftly  seated  on  the 
hip.  When  old  enough  to  run  about  the  children  look  out  for 
themselves,  and  are  seldom  washed  "for  fear  of  the  e\'il  eye"  if 
made  too  attractive.  Hence  they  are  naked  or  scantily  clad, 
they  are  very  dirty,  their  eyes  sticky  ^ith  filth  from  acrid  dis- 
charge and  from  flies,  it  being  counted  injurious  to  the  sight 
to  wash  them.  Sometimes  silver  chains  or  bands  with  little 
bells  are  put  on  the  ankles  of  the  creeping  child,  the  tinkling 
telling  the  mother  where  to  find  her  babe. 

45.  Child  Growth. — Orientals  took  note  of  the  successive 
steps  in  the  growth  of  children,  since  they  applied  different  terms 
to  designate  the  stages  of  development.  Thus  the  Hebrews  had 
ten  or  twelve  terms  designating  children  and  child-life.  These 
were  mainly  used  to  distinguish  successive  fresh  stages  in  the 
child's  development  from  birth  to  adult  age.  The  newly  bom 
infant  was  veled,^  as  "  unto  us  a  child  is  bom."  The  prophet 
ridicules  the  chosen  people  for  their  silliness:  "  they  strike  hands" 
(or  "make  bargains")  with  the  Yalde*  new  bom  babes  of 
strangers.*  The  second  stage  of  child-life  was  designated 
sometimes  by  Velcd  °  and  by  Yonek,  a  suckling.  So  the  writer 
in  Deut.  32  :  25  tells  of  how  the  sword  w^l  sweep  away  all  ages, 

*  Kx.  2  :  7-0.  '  Grant,  p.  66;  see  Ps.  131  :  2. 
'Ex.  1  :  17-22  ;  1  Sam.  i  :  23,  24;  2  :  11.  *  Is.  9  :  6. 

•  Is.  2  :  6.  •  Gen.  2 1  ;  14. 


ORIENTAL   CHILDREN.  47 

"the  suckling  {Yonek)  with  the  man  of  gray  hairs."  Moses 
asks  concerning  rebellious  Israel,  if  Jehovah  should  say  to  him, 
"carry  them  in  thy  bosom,  as  a  nursing  father  beareth  the 
suckling  child,"  Yonek}  So  a  "tender  plant"  is  Yonek,  "a 
sucker."  ^  Again,  when  the  child  began  to  eat  and  drink  as 
well  as  to  suck,  he  was  then  old,  as  the  mourning  prophet  graph- 
ically describing  a  famine  says,  "The  tongue  of  the  suckling 
child,  Yonek,  cleaveth  to  the  roof  of  his  mouth  for  thirst:  the 
young  children  [olalini]  ask  bread,  and  no  man  breaketh  it  unto 
them."  ^  Perhaps  the  next  stage  in  child  development  is 
marked  hy gamut,  "the  weaned  one."  *  For  one  must  be  past 
this  stage  to  be  taught.^  The  fifth  stage  shows  an  advanced 
step,  but  the  child  is  still  clinging  to  the  mother,  and  counted 
"little  children";  taph,  which  may  point  to  children  of  both 
sexes  at  play,  and  in  games  together,  as  noted  by  the  prophets," 
"little  ones,"  ^  or  pirchah,  young ones.^  A  sixth  stage  marks  the 
foregleams  of  adolescence,  the  Elem  and  feminine  alniah,  in- 
dicating growing  large,  or  firm  and  strong.^  And  again,  the  lad 
or  youth  is  naar  (though  this  is  doubtful),'"  one  who  breaks 
loose  or  frees  himself  from  childish  things,  similar  to  Elem 
or  "alam."  "  To  the  eighth  stage  more  than  one  term  applied 
(as  indeed  to  some  others) ,  beside  the  general  designations  ben, 
son,  and  the  Chaldaic  form,  bar.  He  now  v/as  bachur,  a  warrior, 
a  young  man.'^  They  also  had  a  special  term  for  a  child  when 
he  became  "a  son  of  the  law."  Then  there  were  terms  signify- 
ing peculiar  ways  of  growth  or  conditions,  thus  yachid,  an 
only  child;"  neurim,  boyhood;**  neked,  a  successor;'^  and 
zera^^  and  yaldidh,  childhood.'^ 

46.  Steps  and  Grades. — Nor  were  the  Hebrews  singular  in 
their  discrimination  and  close  observation  of  the  stages  of  child- 
growth.      The  old  Assyrian  code  reveals  a  similar  if  not  as 

'  Num.  11:12.  '  Is.  S3  :  2.  '  Lam.  4  :  4. 

*  Ps.  131  :  2.  '  Is.  28  :  0;   see  also  Hos.  i  :  8. 

•Deut.  20  :  14;  Jer.  40  :  7;  Ezek.  9:6.  '  Josh,  i  :  14. 

*  Deut.  22  :  6;  Job  30  :  12.  '  Is.  7  :  14.  '"  Comp.  Ex.  2  '■  6. 
"  I  Sam.  17  :  56.                           "2  Is.  31  :  8;  Jer.  15  :  8;  18  :  21. 

"  TvidK.  II  ;  7.4.  i<  I  Sam.  12  :  2,  "Gen.  21  :  23. 

'*Lev.  22  :  13;  see  also  Talmud.  >' Ecd.  11  :  10. 


48  ORIENTALISMS   EST  BIBLE  LANDS, 

minute  a  subidvision  of  the  periods  of  development  in  the  chil- 
dren. And  they  wisely  aimed  to  adapt  their  instruction  and 
training  to  these  successive  steps  in  physical  and  mental 
growth.  They  held  to  graded  instruction  and  lessons  four 
thousand  years  ago. 

The  children  were  theoretically  under  the  care  of  the  mother 
until  of  an  age  for  their  education  seriously  to  be  undertaken. 
Then  the  boys  v/ere  under  the  father's  special  oversight.  The 
girls  are'left  to  aid  the  mother  in  the  care  of  the  younger  children 
or  infants,  and  to  be  trained  in  household  duties,  including 
bringing  of  water  from  fountains,  grinding  of  flour  in  hand- 
mills,  gathering  fuel  for  cooking,  making  articles  of  personal 
apparel,  including  embroidery,  and  all  kinds  of  fancy  and 
needle  work. 


VII. 

ORIENTAL  child's  PLAYS  AND   GAMES. 

47.  Shy  and  Actors. — Child-nature  has  many  characteristics 
in  common  the  world  over.  The  child  of  thousands  of  years 
ago  and  in  Oriental  lands  was  fond  of  play  and  loved  games. 
It  is  said  that  tourists  now  seldom  see  little  children  at  play  in 
Oriental  countries.  When  the  foreigner  appears  the  children 
suddenly  disappear.  They  see  him  long  before  he  catches  a 
glimpse  of  them.  When  he  departs,  they  reappear,  with  high 
glee  over  his  absence.  Or,  if  the  stranger  meets  them,  they 
will  strike  an  attitude  to  excite  pity,  and  cry  for  backshish,  gifts. 
Or,  they  may  shy  a  stone  at  some  tourist  who  has  ventured 
out  of  the  customary  route  into  the  native  children's  domain. 

48.  Kinds  of  Play. — Children  in  the  East  now  play  around 
pits,  cisterns,  in  gardens,  on  threshing  floors,  and  upon  the  flat 
roofs  of  houses.  They  shng  and  throw  at  a  mark,  play  house, 
peggy,  and  ^^dth  sticks  resembling  stick-knife.  They  have  games 
of  ball,  quoits,  a  native  play  called  wolf,  hide  and  seek,  and  play 
something  like  golf,  marbles,  leap-frog,  blindman's  blufif,  swing- 
ing, see-saw,  checkers,  and  draughts,  similar  to  chess,  though 
the  manner  of  playing  all  these  is  thoroughly  Oriental,  and 
different  from  that  of  children  of  the  West.  The  girls  have 
dolls,  toys,  something  like  grace-hoops,  and  a  great  variety  of 
other  amusements.  The  litde  girls  and  boys  usually  play  to- 
gether when  very  young,  but  at  six  to  seven  years  of  age  the 
boys  separate  from  the  girls  to  play  by  themselves. 

49.  Toys  in  the  East. — In  patriarchal  times  the  children 
had  dolls  and  toys  and  much  the  same  objects  as  amuse  Oriental 
children  now.  For  many  ingeniously  formed  toy  horses,  goats, 
sheep,  and  elephants  of  burnt  clay  have  been  found  in  ancient 
Nippur  and  dug  from  other  cities  of  old  Babylonia.  Even 
baby-ratdes  shaped  like  a  chicken,  a  doll,  or  a  drum  were  found 
with  a  small  stone  in  the  hollow  body,  that  made  a  noise 
when   the   object   was    shaken,    similar    to   the   baby-rattles 

4  49 


50  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

of  our  times.  Similar  toys  for  children  were  common  among 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  as  we  know  from  specimens  found  in  the 
tombs  and  ruined  temples  of  that  wonderful  land.  The  little 
Egyptian  children  before  the  days  of  Moses  had  painted  dolls, 
the  hands  and  legs  moving  on  pins,  that  could  be  made  to  assume 
queer  positions  by  pulling  a  string.  Miriam,  Moses-  sister, 
may  have  played  with  such  a  doll.  Miniature  models  of  the 
human  body  and  of  animals  were  made  as  toys.  A  man  or 
woman  washing  or  kneading  dough  was  imitated  in  motions 
by  the  similar  pulling  of  a  string.  Or  a  small  crocodile  was 
made  to  open  and  close  its  great  mouth,  to  amuse  a  child. 
Many  kinds  of  plays  with  ball  and  hoop  were  known  in  very 
early  times  in  the  Orient. 

50.  Ball  Games. — The  game  of  ball  was  played  by  children 
of  both  sexes,  though  in  Egypt  it  was  more  common  for  girls. 
They  would  play  it  by  hurling  three  or  more  balls  into  the  air 
and  catching  them  in  succession  or  leaping  into  the  air  and 
catching  a  ball  before  the  feet  struck  the  ground.  In  one  form 
of  ball-game  the  one  who  failed  to  catch  the  ball  would  be 
required  to  let  her  competitor  ride  on  her  back  until  she  too 
missed  the  ball.  The  ball  would  be  thrown  by  the  opposite 
party,  also  mounted  on  another  girl's  back,  and  each  must  play 
from  that  position.  Balls  were  stuffed  with  bran  or  chaff, 
covered  with  leather,  some  of  them  three  inches  in  diameter. 
Others  were  smaller  and  made  of  rushes,  and  covered  vath. 
leather  also,  in  eight  rhomboidal  sections. 

51.  Athletic  Games. — Dice  and  draughts,  similar  to  chess, 
wresding,  boxing,  leaping,  running  and  numberless  other  amuse- 
ments, as  odd  and  even,  and  mora,  some  of  them  unknown  to  us, 
were  the  delight  of  the  little  people  of  five  or  six  thousand 
years  ago.  All  the  games  and  plays  of  children  in  those  lands 
and  times  were  intended  to  promote  health  and  strength. 

52.  Children  Happy. — Peasant  children  in  the  East  are  never 
burdened  with  clothes.  They  are  usually  barefooted,  bare- 
headed, and  make  up  in  dirtiness  for  any  lack  of  garments.  To 
conceive  of  all  children  in  the  East  as  sad  and  chronically  un- 


ORIENTAL   child's   PLAYS   AND   GAMES.  5 1 

happy  is  a  Western  iktion.  The  prophet's  bright  picture  of 
children  playing  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem/  as  they  played  in  the 
streets  of  great  cities  on  the  Euphrates  thousands  of  years  ago,  is 
fully  understood  by  Orientals.  The  period  for  children's  plays 
and  games  there  is  shorter  than  in  the  West,  because  the  chil- 
dren mature  much  earlier. 

53.  Japanese  Children. — The  Japanese  are  conspicuous  for 
the  number  and  variety  of  games  and  amusements  they  have 
invented  for  children.  Some  of  them  have  a  high  educational 
value,  such  as  cards  with  bits  of  poems,  or  proverbs  in  two  parts 
to  be  matched,  or  names  of  cities  or  towns  and  bits  of  wood  cut 
in  geometrical  figures,  to  be  put  together,  called  wisdom  boards 
and  puzzles.  In  no  country  are  the  variety,  colors,  fantastic 
shapes,  and  novelties  in  kites  so  numerous,  ingenious,  and 
striking  as  in  Japan.  The  childrens'  toys  also  disj>lay  great  in- 
genuity, and  suggest  an  amount  of  thought  given  to  the  amuse- 
ment of  children  that  would  do  credit  to  the  great  toy  factories 
of  Nuremberg.  The  girls  have  dolls  and  images  in  abundance. 
The  boys  have  balls,  stilts,  pop-guns,  slings,  and  blow-gims. 
As  they  advance  in  years,  they  practice  as  flute-players  and  in 
charades,  as  conjurers,  dancers,  song-singers,  raree  shows,  and 
sometimes  with  genii  or  ghostly  figures  lighted  in  the  dark  to 
starde  or  frighten  others  or  to  give  them  courage.  The 
Chinese  also  play  foot-ball  and  shuttle-cock  with  their  feet,  and 
fiy  kites  shaped  like  fishes,  animals,  butterflies,  insects,  and  birds. 
The  bird  kites  also  have  holes  in  them,  with  fine  thread  across, 
making  them  into  ^olian  harps,  so  that  a  bird-kite  not  only 
looks  quite  like  a  real  bird  in  the  air,  but  sings  like  one  too. 
Oriental  children  also  enjoy  feats  of  wresding  and  of  acrobats, 
jugglers'  tricks,  dice,  fortune-tellers,  and  magical  arts,  similar 
to  those  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  children  have 
a  play  called  jang,  with  wooden  shoes,  the  game  being  to  throw 
one  shoe  from  a  distance  so  that  it  will  be  inserted  inside  the 
other.  These  illustrate  the  wealth  of  Oriental  thought  and 
interest  devoted  to  child  development. 

» Zech.  8  :  $• 


VIII. 


EDUCATION   OF   ORIENTAL  CHILDREN. 

54.  Child  Ctdiure. — Schools  for  the  education  of  children 
existed  La  the  East  thousands  of  years  before  Socrates  ques- 
tioned Alcibiades,  or  Confucius  taught  disciples  and  before 
Moses  even  "was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyp- 
tians."* Systems  of  public  education,  however,  such  as  are 
now  common  in  highly  civilized  countries,  were  not  known. 
But  specimens  of  school  exercises  in  great  variety  have  been 
found  in  the  buried  cities  of  old  Babylonia,  indicating  the 
educational  methods  in  the  era  of  the  patriarchs,  and  before 
Abram's  childhood  days  in  old  Ur.  And  these  methods  are 
further  illustrated  by  the  peculiar  education  of  children  in 
Oriental  lands  as  observed  in  the  past  century. 

55.  Religiotis  Motive. — The  methods  vary  widely  among 
different  peoples  of  the  East,  and  sometimes  among  the  same 
peoples,  when  they  are  of  different  religious  faiths.  Thus, 
instruction  among  the  Moslems,  usually,  if  not  always,  centers 
about  the  Koran;  among  the  Buddhists,  it  is  around  their 
religious  rites  and  in  their  sacred  books,  and  among  the  Con- 
fucians about  the  traditional  teachings  of  the  Chinese  Sage;  yet 
in  them  all  there  are  features  distinctiy  Oriental.  Thus,  an 
Oriental  school  may  be  connected  with  a  mosque,  a  temple,  or  a 
place  of  worship,  house  of  som.e  priest,  or  a  public  fountain,  or 
public  building,  where  children  can  be  instructed  at  a  trifling 
expense. 

56.  Oriental  Schools. — Wilkinson,  Lane,  Van  Lennep,  and 
others  have  given  us  pictures  of  these  schools.  In  Eg}j)t  the 
fic¥ee,  or  Master,  says  Lane,  received  from  the  parent  of  each 
pupil  half  a  piaster  (about  three  cents)  more  or  less,  each 
Thursday,  that  day  being  the  end  of  the  Moslem  week,  as 

'  Acts  7  :  22. 


EDUCATION   OF   ORIENTAL  CHILDREN.  53 

Friday  is  their  Sabbath  or  holiday.  The  teacher  usually  re- 
ceives also  a  present  of  muslin  for  a  turban,  a  piece  of  linen  and 
a  pair  of  shoes,  once  a  year,  in  the  feast-month  of  Ramadan. 
Their  "blackboards"  were  wood-tablets  painted  white,  written 
upon  with  thin  colored  inks.  When  one  lesson  was  learned, 
the  tablet  was  washed  and  another  lesson  written.  The  children 
drop  off  their  wooden  shoes,  if  they  have  any,  at  the  door; 
squat  on  the  floor,  on  a  mat,  a  rug,  or  a  bit  of  old  carpet,  holding 
a  tablet  in  hand.  The  master  sits  on  a  mat  or  small  mattress, 
and  leans  upon  a  cushion.  The  scholars  study  their  lessons 
aloud,  the  one  that  shouts  the  loudest  being  counted  the  most 
studious.  The  din  and  noise  can  hardly  be  imagined.  Books 
are  rare,  says  Van  Lennep.  The  lessons  to  be  memorized  are 
chiefly  prayers  and  formularies  of  their  religion.  Reading  and 
writing  are  taught  by  letters,  signs  for  syllables,  and  words  on 
the  tablets,  as  they  were  many  thousand  years  ago  in  Nineveh 
and  Nippur. 

57.  Trained  in  Manners. — The  chief  early  training  of  the 
Oriental  child  was  and  is  to  make  all  his  gestures,  looks,  and 
movements  decent  and  graceful.  Plato  commended  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  for  permitting  their  children  to  learn  only 
songs  and  verses  that  inspired  to  virtue.  They  diligendy  in- 
culcated respect  for  the  aged  and  toward  strangers,  and 
reverence  to  parents.  The  young  were  to  defer  to  superiors 
in  age  and  station.  The  son  is  early  taught  that  he  is  not  to  sit, 
eat,  or  smoke  in  the  presence  of  his  father  unless  he  is  bidden  to 
do  so.  He  must  stand  quietly  with  folded  hands,  not  speak  un- 
less spoken  to,  wait  upon  his  father,  and  upon  any  guest. 
This  he  is  expected  to  do  even  after  he  has  grown  to  be  a  man. 
Disobedience  to  parents  is  one  of  the  greatest  sins.  Muham- 
med  required  children  to  be  taught  to  say  their  prayers,  and 
were  to  be  beaten  if  they  neglected  to  say  them.  But  Moslem 
girls  are  seldom  taught  among  the  peasantry  to  read,  write,  or  to 
say  prayers.  The  higher  class  of  Egj'ptians  often  employed 
a  woman  teacher  to  teach  needle-work,  embroidery,  and  some- 
times reading  and  writing.    An  Oriental  child  is  an  example  of 


54  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

meekness  with  its  parents.  A  child  is  not  usually  required  to 
attend  religious  service  or  to  fast  until  thirteen  or  fourteen  years 
of  age,  depending  partly  on  size  and  appearance.  His  father 
may  permit  him  to  sign  documents,  but  after  eighteen  years  of 
age  he  may  transact  business  for  himself,  and  is  responsible 
before  the  law,  and  may  wear  a  turban.  "No  son  is  dearer 
than  a  grandson"  is  an  Eastern  proverb. 

58.  Oral  Teaching. — Where  there  is  no  school  or  teacher  for 
the  community,  the  mother  teaches  the  little  children  as  best 
she  can  orally.  She  sits  on  a  mat  or  rug,  with  a  cushion  to  her 
back,  and  holds  the  child  for  hours,  as  the  Shunammite  held 
her  sick  son.^  The  father  takes  charge  of  his  son's  education 
as  soon  as  the  latter  passes  from  the  mother's  sole  care,  say  at 
six  or  seven  years  of  age.  They  are  taught  to  kiss  the  hand  of  a 
superior,  and  to  place  the  back  of  it  against  their  foreheads  in 
token  of  respect  and  obedience.  The  higher  schools  now  in 
Oriental  countries  are  adopting  many  features  similar  to  West- 
em  institutions  of  learning,  but  these  are  not  distinctly  Oriental 
in  origin  or  in  character. 

59.  Hebrew  Graded  System. — The  Hebrews  had  a  somewhat 
systematic  method  of  education,  roughly  adapted  to  their  idea 
of  the  periods  in  child-life.  Thus  Rabbi  Jehuda  is  cited  in 
the  Mishna  ^  as  fixing  the  subjects  of  study  at  different  periods. 
"At  five  years  of  age,  reading  the  Bible  (Leviticus) ,  at  ten  years, 
learning  the  Mishna;  at  thirteen  years,  the  commandments; 
at  fifteen  years,  the  study  of  the  Talmud;  at  eighteen  years, 
marriage;  at  twenty,  engaged  in  trade  or  business."  Other 
views,  however,  were  held;  strong  children  only  were  set  to 
regular  study  before  six  years  old.  Yet  the  infant  even  shared 
in  the  domestic  worship  on  the  Sabbath,  and  pointed  to  the 
house  phylactery,  having  the  small  parchment  on  which  were 
Deut.  6 : 4-9  and  1 1  :  13-21.  The  child  in  arms  was  often  taught 
to  touch  this  case  on  the  door-post,  and  kiss  its  finger.  Private 
prayers  were  early  fixed  in  mind,  the  Psalms  chanted  in  worship, 
and  also  the  great  HalleP  made  famihar  in  childhood.     The 

•  2  Kings  4  :  so.  -  Aboth  V.  21.  '  Ps.  113-118  and  136.     See  \  45. 


EDUCATION   or   ORIENTAL  CHILDREN.  55 

youngest  child  asked  the  meaning  of  the  passover  feast.^  The 
father  was  required  to  teach  the  religion  of  Jehovah  to  his  child 
from  the  earliest  time.  God  said  of  Abraham,  "  I  have  known 
him,  to  the  end  that  he  may  command  his  children  and  his 
household  after  him,  that  they  may  keep  the  way  of  Jehovah."  ^ 
To  the  devout  Hebrew  the  law  of  God  was  the  substance  of  all 
learning. 

60.  General  Knowledge. — The  sciences,  civil  laws,  even  medi- 
cine, were  aids  to  the  knowledge  of  God.  "Astronomy  was 
studied  to  make  computations  in  the  Jewish  calendar,"  and  to 
throw  hght  on  remarkable  providences.  History,  geography, 
and  the  study  of  nature  were  all  incidental  to  the  chief  subject, 
the  national  religious  faith.  The  earhest  lesson  was  the  words 
of  Jehovah,^  beginning  with  Leviticus,  rather  than  Genesis,  if 
we  may  trust  the  Mishna,  followed  by  other  books  of  Moses, 
the  prophets,  and  finally  the  Kethuhim,  holy  writings,  as  Psalms 
and  later  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

61.  Teachers. — The  girls  were  not  given  the  same  kind  and 
amount  of  instruction  by  rabbis  as  the  boys.  Having  been 
taught  the  religious  observances,  the  commandments,  and  the 
prayers  at  home;  boys  were  sent  to  school,  and  if  apt  and 
promising,  to  an  academy  or  to  some  learned  rabbi.  If  the 
father  was  removed  or  unable  to  teach,  the  mother  or  some  other 
relative  might  supply  the  instruction.  Thus,  Timothy  who  had 
a  Gentile  father,  and  a  home  in  the  heathen  city  of  Lystra,  was 
taught  by  his  Jewish  mother  and  grandmother  from  "a  babe" 
the  "sacred  writings."  *  Before  the  destruction  of  the  temple 
the  rulers  had  provided  every  Jevdsh  village  with  a  teacher  to 
instruct  boys  over  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  as  commanded  in 
Isa.  2  :  3.  The  children  were  not  to  company  with  the  \icious, 
were  to  suppress  bitterness,  be  silent  to  those  cursing  them,  see 
sin  as  repulsive,  and  as  sure  to  bring  penalty.  Manied  men 
only  could  be  teachers  of  schools.  About  tlie  Maccabean  pe- 
riod all  gymnastic  exercises  were  forbidden  in  Jewish  schools, 
because  of  their  corrupting  tendencies  to   Grecian  worship. 

*  Ex.  la  :  26,  J7.  '  Gen.  18  :  19.  '  Deut.  11  :  19.  *  2  Tim.  3  :  15. 


$6  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

Every  synagogue  might  have  a  school,  and  Maimonides  affirms 
that  every  place,  where  there  were  twenty-five  Jewish  boys  of 
suitable  age  or  120  families,  was  bound  to  appoint  a  teacher. 
If  there  were  forty  boys,  an  assistant  was  required,  and  if  fifty, 
the  rulers  must  appoint  two  teachers  connected  with  a  syna- 
gogue. The  traditional  account  of  480  such  schools  in  Jerusa- 
lem at  the  time  of  its  destruction,  is  probably  an  exaggeration  or 
misunderstood  reference. 

62.  Subjects  0/  Study. — As  a  further  testimony  respecting  the 
subjects  of  study  in  Jewish  Oriental  schools,  Philo  refers  to 
synagogues  as  "houses  of  instruction,"  and  affirms  that  "by 
their  parents,  tutors,  and  teachers  "  the  Jews  were  instructed, 
from  their  earliest  youth,  in  the  knowledge  of  the  law,  so  that 
they  bear  the  image  of  it  in  their  souls.  And  Josephus  quite 
boastfully  exclaims,  "if  anybody  do  ask  any  of  us  about  our 
laws,  he  will  more  readily  tell  them  all  than  he  will  tell  his  owti 
name,  having  learned  them  as  soon  as  we  became  sensible  of 
anything."  *  The  writers  of  the  Talmud  indicate  that  the 
earliest  course  of  lessons  were  passages  of  the  Bible.  These 
selections  were  nine  chapters  or  sections  of  Leviticus,  ten  of 
Numbers,  the  record  of  the  Creation  and  the  Flood  in  Genesis, 
portions  of  Deuteronomy  and  Numbers  15,  called  the  Shetna, 
and  the  Hallel.^  Then  followed  lessons  in  Jewish  traditions 
and  in  the  Gamara  or  rabbinical  commentaries  on  their  tra- 
ditions. 

63.  Value  of  Training. — The  schools  sometimes  had  a  recess 
from  about  10  A.  m.  to  3  p.  m.  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  The 
high  estimation  placed  upon  their  education,  however  narrow 
and  defective  it  may  seem  to  us,  is  shown  by  some  Talmudic 
proverbs:  "The  world  continues  to  exist  only  by  the  breath  of 
the  children  of  the  schools."  "If  you  would  destroy  the  Jews 
you  must  destroy  their  schools."  "Who  teaches  the  child, 
shall  have  a  place  with  the  saints  above."  And  in  Daniel  it  is 
said,  "They  that  are  teachers  shall  shine  as  the  brightness  of 
the  firmament."  ^ 

•Contra,  Apion,  II.  19.  «Ps.  113-118.  'Dan.  12  :  3,  margin. 


EDUCATION   OF   ORIENTAL  CHILDREN.  57 

64.  Hindu  Education. — Education  among  the  native  Hindus, 
before  the  British  rule,  was  limited  to  Brahmins  and  two  castes 
below  them;  the  Brahmins  alone  were  allowed  to  explain  the 
Vedas,  or  sacred  books,  to  the  two  castes.  The  larger  and  lower 
caste  of  Sudras — laborers — were  forbidden  to  learn  to  read 
or  even  listen  to  the  reading  of  the  sacred  books.  It  was  a 
disgrace  in  India  for  a  girl  or  a  woman  to  know  how  to  read. 

65.  Purity  Taught. — There  is  another  kind  of  education  or 
training  for  Jewish  children  that  must  be  noticed.  The  Mosaic 
laws  were  very  strict  and  minute  in  respect  to  purity  and  keeping 
ceremonially  clean.  Every  child  was  taught  from  infancy  not 
only  to  regard  the  texts  on  the  door  and  like  things  as  holy,  but 
also  that  multitudes  of  things  amid  which  he  moved  were  un- 
clean and  to  touch  them  would  defile  him,  and  require  him  to 
be  secluded  from  others  until  he  could  be  made  ceremonially 
clean  again. 

In  running  about,  he  must  be  careful  not  to  touch  any  dead 
body  or  thing,  any  tomb,  or  receptacle  where  dead  had  been. 
He  must  never  eat  ham,  bacon,  pork,  or  any  kind  of  swine's  flesh, 
or  of  birds  of  prey.  He  must  not  taste  or  touch  a  drop  of  blood 
or  certain  fats,  nor  any  one  of  a  hundred  things,  that  by  their 
laws  would  defile  him.  When  he  passed  certain  things  or  per- 
sons in  the  street,  he  must  carefully  take  up  the  skirts  of  his 
clothes,  lest  they  touch  and  defile  and  render  him  unclean. 
The  hands  must  always  have  clean  water  poured  over  them  just 
before  eating.  The  child  must  learn  not  to  touch  certain  creep- 
ing things  without  wings.  He  must  avoid  a  mouse,  a  weasel, 
several  kinds  of  lizards,  and  the  chameleon.  If  he  should 
touch  any  dead  person  or  animal  or  any  person  sick  with  certain 
diseases,  as  leprosy,  or  any  one  with  morbid  fluxes,  or  issues  of 
blood,  he  was  "unclean"  and  must  have  a  sacrifice  offered  to 
make  him  clean.  He  must  keep  away  from  other  children  or 
persons  often  for  seven  days.  For  if  one  touched  other  children 
they  too  became  unclean.  They  must  be  careful,  therefore,  not 
to  pick  up  the  bone  of  an  animal,  not  to  allow  even  their  clothing 
to  touch  any  of  these  objects,  nor  to  enter  any  place  where  they 


58  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

had  lain  or  been,  lest  they  themselves  be  excluded  from  society 
of  others,  and  looked  upon  as  we  look  upon  persons  ill  with 
small-pox.  They  must  go  through  a  process  of  purification  to 
be  admitted  into  company  with  others  freely,  even  to  those  of 
their  own  household.  This  was  a  serious  educational  disci- 
pline for  a  Jewish  Oriental  child. 

Many  native  Hindu  rites  required  by  their  sacred  books 
or  practiced  from  law  or  custom  about  touching  dead  bodies, 
the  leprous,  the  ceremonial  impurity  of  men  and  women, 
their  separation,  and  the  modes  of  purification,  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  Mosaic  laws  in  respect  to  uncleanness  and 
their  modes  of  purification.^ 

>  See  Allen's  India,  Ancient  and  Modem,  p.  400  ff.    Compare  also  Lev.  cbaps.  5,  14, 


IX. 


RELATION   OF   PARENTS,   CHILDREN,   AND   SERVANTS. 

66.  Obedience. — The  Oriental  idea  of  the  relation  and 
duties  of  parents  and  children  and  servants  springs  from 
their  conception  of  the  structure  of  the  family.^  Orientals 
are  not  always  model  parents,  nor  are  their  children  specially 
noted  for  docihty  and  good  behavior,  even  though  a  son  who 
should  cease  to  reverence  or  obey  his  parents  would  be  publicly 
outlawed  as  a  monster.  The  Fifth  Commandment  appealed  to 
the  Oriental  mind  as  reasonable  and  the  only  proper  attitude 
of  the  child.  The  Christian  interpretation  of  it,  "Children, 
obey  your  parents  in  the  Lord,"^  has  "a  deeper  meaning  than 
either  parents  or  children  are  apt  to  discover."  Parents  "not 
in  the  Lord"  expecting  obedience,  may  break  the  old  com- 
mand and  forfeit  obedience.  And  yet  this  may  not,  and  in 
Oriental  lands  does  not,  usually  relieve  the  child.  The  child's 
question  is  not:  "Is  my  father  a  Christian?"  "Is  he  worthy 
to  be  obeyed?"  He  may  ask,  "Can  I  comply  with  his  com- 
mand and  not  dishonor  the  Lord  ?  "  If  he  disobeys,  even  then 
he  must  be  ready  to  accept  any  penalty  that  may  follow. 
The  Orientals  assume  that  the  father  is  to  be  obeyed,  and  that 
obligation  goes  on  after  maturity  of  the  son,  and  practically 
never  ceases.  The  Western  caricature  of  the  Fifth  Command- 
ment, "Parents,  obey  your  children  in  the  world,"  would  shock 
the  most  debased  heathen  Oriental. 

67.  Son  Seeks  Advice. — The  principle  of  the  Mosaic  com- 
mand is  ingrained  into  Oriental  life.  It  may  not  be  practiced 
or  fulfilled  in  the  spirit,  but  it  is  profoundly  accepted  in  theory, 
and  generally  conformed  to  outwardly,  to  escape  public  odium. 
This  reverence  for  parents  among  Orientals  often  amounts 
almost,  or  quite  to,   worship,  as  with   the  Chinese.     Every 

•  Sec.  I.  8  Eph.  6  :  i. 

59 


6o  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

true  Oriental  honors  father  and  mother  in  youth  and  old  age, 
and  after  their  death.  On  rising,  each  day,  a  man  offers  his 
prayers,  and  then  goes  to  his  father  and  mother  to  kiss  their 
hands  and  ask  their  blessing.  When  he  begins  a  new  business, 
he  asks  the  favor  of  God  on  his  enterprise,  and  ends  with  a 
desire  that  his  parents  will  approve  of,  and  bless  him,  in  this 
matter.  He  believes  that  if  he  honors  his  parents  it  will  tend 
to  shield  him  from  loss  and  harm  and  bring  him  success. 

68.  Slaves  in  tJie  East. — Servants  in  Oriental  families  are 
often  slaves  now,  as  they  have  been  from  time  immemorial. 
Moslems,  non-Protestant  Christians,  and,  indeed,  nearly  all 
of  Oriental  religionists  have  slaves  in  the  East.  It  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  of  a  mild  type,  and  that  slaves  can  buy  their 
freedom.  Domestic  slaves  bora  through  the  master  in  the 
house  are  not  commonly  sold.  The  domestic  households  of 
chief  persons  of  Islam  are  largely  made  up  of  slaves,  and  hence 
slavery  is  not  likely  wholly  to  disappear  in  the  East  so  long  as 
Moslem  power  controls  any  state. 

69.  Children  as  Slaves. — Then,  too,  the  children  in  an  Orien- 
tal household  differ  practically  in  nothing  from  servants, 
domestic  slaves,  a  condition  Islam  everywhere  accentuates 
in  the  East.  Their  privileges  in  the  home,  their  education, 
the  seclusion  of  women,  and  the  children  often  permitted  in  the 
women's  apartments  only,  make  them  little  better  than  house- 
hold slaves,  though  they  are  heirs  of  the  master.  Wlien  his 
tutelage  is  over,  and  he  enters  maturity,  then  he  becomes 
lord  of  all.^  Until  then  he  may  be  required  to  wait  on  his 
father  like  a  common  servant.  The  faithful  servant  stands  at 
a  distance  in  the  room  and  keeps  his  eyes  on  the  hands  of  his 
master  and  on  those  of  his  guest.  For  when  the  master  wishes 
any  service  he  signifies  it  by  a  gesture  or  motion  of  his  hands, 
an  Oriental  custom  of  great  antiquity.  Thus  the  Psalmist  says, 
"As  the  eyes  of  servants  look  unto  the  hand  of  their  master, 
and  as  the  eyes  of  a  maiden  unto  the  hand  of  her  mistress;  so 
our  eyes  wait  upon  the  Lord  our  God."^ 

«  Gal.  4:1-  '  Ps-  "3  :  *• 


RELATION   OF   PARENTS,    CHILDREN,    AND   SERVANTS.      6l 

70.  Mixed  Classes. — A  household  now  in  Egypt  and  in 
other  Bible  lands,  where  the  Moslem  religion  prevails,  will  be 
made  up  of  several  classes  of  persons  besides  the  master,  the 
mistress,  and  the  children.  There  usually  are  several  servants, 
some  free  and  some  slaves.  The  male  slave,  usually  black, 
has  more  responsibility  than  even  the  free  servant.  He  is 
often  a  great  fanatic,  quite  ignoran|,  but  with  certain  native 
aptness  to  execute  the  orders  of  his  master.  The  female 
servants  and  slaves  may,  some  of  them,  be  white  or  Abyssinians, 
and  are  usually  secondary  wives,  while  others  are  black  slaves, 
kept  as  cooks,  waitresses,  and  for  domestic  service.  Bui  free 
servants  cannot  legitimately  become  concubines  or  secondary 
wives.  The  male  servants  m.ay  include  a  slave  to  wait  per- 
sonally on  the  master,  a  general  servant,  sackka,  water  carrier, 
a  bowwab,  or  door-keeper,  and  a  Sets  or  groom,  or  "coach- 
m.an,"  as  Europeans  would  say. 

71.  Women  Secluded. — The  women  are  secluded  by  a 
rehgious  sentiment,  which  is  thus  stated,  "Speak  unto  believ- 
ing women  (Moslems),  that  they  restrain  their  eyes,  preserve 
their  modesty,  and  discover  not  their  ornaments.  Let  them 
throw  their  veils  over  their  bosoms,  and  not  show  their  orna- 
ments unless  to  their  husbands  or  their  fathers."  It  is  counted 
indecent  for  a  woman  who  is  a  Moslem  to  uncover  her  face 
(lift  her  veil)  before  an  infidel.  The  Moslem  regards  all 
Christians  as  infidels.  In  earlier  times  women  were  not  so 
rigidly  secluded.  This  seclusion  has  tended  to  deteriorate 
woman,  and  to  degrade  her,  as  elsewhere  stated. 

72.  Women,  Slave  Companions. — That  women  and  children 
are  forced  to  find  companionship  with  slaves  so  large  a  part 
of  their  time,  must  make  them  craven  in  disposition  and 
produce  low  types  of  character.^  Slavery  in  some  form  existed 
in  the  days  of  Abraham,  and  two  or  more  thousand  years 
before  the  Christian  era.^  Even  children  were  sold  as  slaves 
by  their  parents.^    The  penalty  for  offenses  committed  by 

•  See  Gal.  4  :  i. 

'Gen.  9  :  25:  15  :  2;  24  :  2,  34;  26  :  19,  32.     See  Code  of  Hammurabi. 

'  Ex.  21:7;  Lev.  25  :  39. 


62  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

slaves  was  half  or  less  that  put  upon  others.^  Under  Moslem 
rules,  neither  a  Jew  nor  a  Christian  is  allowed  to  make  a 
Moslem  slave  his  concubine.  But  a  Moslem  may  have  a  second 
wife  of  any  religion.  The  husband  may  have  no  control  of  his 
wife's  female  slaves  unless  the  mistress  consents.  This  is  an 
old  Oriental  custom,  as  seen  in  the  case  of  Hagar  and  Sarah." 
See  also  Leah  and  Rachel,  and  their  slave  maids,  Zilpah  and 
Bilhah.3 

73.  Retainers. — Another  class,  designated  as  retainers,  do  not 
receive  wages,  but  their  living  only  and  presents.  The  gifts 
to  these  retainers  in  the  household  may  depend  upon  the  num- 
ber of  visitors  and  persons  calling  on  business.  These 
retainers  have  a  better  social  position  than  hired  servants  or 
slaves,  though  otherwise  it  would  be  difl&cult  for  us  to  detect 
the  difference  of  these  classes  in  their  relations  to  the  house- 
hold. 

A  traveler  in  Syria  during  the  last  century  says,  "  we  had  a 
striking  instance  of  the  way  *  the  eyes  of  servants  look  to  the 
hand  of  their  masters.'  Standing  at  the  bottom  of  the  room, 
near  the  door  and  in  a  lower  space,  the  youth  who  waited  on 
us  watched  every  motion  of  our  host  with  closest  attention, 
whilst  he  commanded  or  directed  him  by  signs." 

•  Lev.  19  :  20.  '  Gen.  16  :  1-14-  '  Gen.  30  :  3-13. 


Village  Well,  Nazareth. 

{.Copyright  by  Underivood  &  Underivood,  Neiv  }'or^.) 


p.  66 


Cistern — Well  for  Surface  Rainfall. 

(Fester  &■  Co.) 


P.  66 


X. 


WOMAN  AMONG   ORIENTALS. 


74.  Woman  Degraded. — The  degraded  position  of  woman 
in  the  East  now  varies  only  in  the  relative  extent  of  her  degrada- 
tion. Her  social  condition  is  generally  worse  to-day  in  Oriental 
lands  than  it  was  three  thousand  years  ago.  The  only  excep- 
tion to  this  is  in  communities  where  Christianity  has  intluenced 
home  life.  She  is  more  a  drudge,  a  slave,  or  a  plaything  for 
man  than  his  companion.  The  rigid  seclusion  of  women 
required  by  the  Mohammedan  religion,  the  inhuman  custom  of 
self-immolation  of  the  widow  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  her  dead 
husband  under  Brahminical  rule,  the  utter  lack  of  a  moral  code, 
and  of  a  decent  regard  for  her  purity  among  the  worshipers  of 
Shinto,  are  simply  indications  of  the  almost  universal  degrada- 
tion of  woman  in  Asiatic  lands. 

75.  Examples  in  Orient. — The  exceptions  to  this  are  so  rare 
as  to  prove  the  rule.  In  Burmah  women  have  some  freedom, 
and  are  not  rigidly  secluded,  as  in  India.  "They  may  freely 
mingle  with  men  and  attend  to  business  matters  of  the  family." 
But  the  marriage  tie  is  loose  and  concubinage  is  common. 
Drunkenness  and  opium  smoking  prevail,  the  use  of  tobacco  and 
the  betel  nut  is  almost  universal  by  women  and  children. 

In  Korea,  to  a  modem  missionary's  plea  to  send  her  daughter 
to  school,  the  woman  bitterly  re])lied,  "What  is  woman? 
After  dogs  and  pigs  were  made,  nothing  was  left,  so  woman  was 
created  out  of  the  refuse."  ^  Pagan  and  Mohammedan  litera- 
ture is  so  saturated  with  licentious  thought  and  coarse,  vile 
expressions  that  whole  sections  are  untranslatable.  The 
corrupt  conversation  among  Moslem  Asiatics,  even  women  and 
children,  is  so  foul  as  to  be  almost  incredible.  The  Moslem 
seclusion  of  women  has  lowered  her  to  the  lowest — so  degraded 

'  See  Dr.  Arthur  J.  Brown,  "Near  and  Farther  East,"  p.  264. 

63 


64  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  vile  that  the  sensuality  is  too  utterly  vile  and  lascivious  to 
be  mentioned.^ 

76.  Hebrew  Women. — She  was  in  a  better  state  among  the 
Jews,  but  it  cannot  be  forgotten  that  Jewish  women  were  little 
removed  from  servile  conditions  even  among  them.  Women 
were  not  admitted  beyond  the  outer  court  in  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem;  they  must  worship  by  themselves,  be  screened  from 
men  in  synagogues,  and  had  only  a  partial  share  in  religious 
privileges  and  blessings. 

In  ancient  times  she  was  not  rigidly  secluded  or  compelled  to 
cover  herself  or  her  face  with  the  veil.  Nor  was  it  "folly  to 
teach  women  to  read."  Thus,  the  old  Egyptians  saw  the  face 
of  Abram's  wife,^  and  the  young  woman  Rebekah  was  seen  to  be 
"good  of  countenance,"  by  Abraham's  man-servant.^  And 
the  young  man  Jacob  saw  the  maiden  Rachel  and  kissed  her — 
an  early  example  "of  love  at  first  sight."*  The  young  women 
then  were  not  counted  bold  or  immodest  if  they  conversed  with 
strangers.  But  now  women  in  that  same  land,  seeing  a  man 
coming,  turn  their  backs  toward  him,  and  though  they  are 
asking  for  bread,  will  not  turn  their  faces  nor  take  anything  in 
their  hands.  If  the  stranger  answers  their  requests,  he  must 
put  the  article  near  them  and  go  away.  Then  the  woman  will 
pick  up  the  gift.* 

77.  Moslem  Women. — The  Hon.  Justice  Ameer  Ali  affirms 
that  the  degradation  of  Moslem  women  is  of  comparatively 
recent  date.  "Almost  to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  (of  our 
era)  women  mixed  with  men  with  dignity  and  self-respect, 
held  reunions,  gave  concerts,  and  received  visitors."  Of  a 
grand-daughter  of  Fatima,  the  lady  Sakaina,  he  says,  "she  gave 
the  tone  to  the  cultivated  society  of  her  age.  The  reunions 
in  her  house  of  poets,  scholars,  jurists,  and  other  distinguished 
people  of  both  sexes,  became  the  model  for  similar  social 
gatherings  at  the  residences  of  other  ladies  of  fashion."  Ali 
further  states  that  Kadir,  the  Abbasside,  promulgated  the  edict 

•  See  Mohammedan  World  of  To-day,  117,  139,  284  ff.         '  Gen.  12  :  14. 

*Gen.  34  :  15,  16.  *  Gen.  20  :  lo,  n.  ^See  Burckhardt,  i,  353. 


^VOMAN   AMONG   ORIENTALS.  65 

forbidding  women  to  appear  in  public  without  the  burka  (veil) 
and  adds,  "with  that  commenced  the  decadence  of  Islam."  ^ 

The  fellahin  women  of  Palestine  have  the  same  contempt 
for  Egyptian  women  as  Miriam  and  Aaron  had  for  the  wife  of 
Moses;  "for  he  had  married  an  Ethiopian  woman."  ^ 

78.  Eating  with  Men. — In  ancient  times  women  ate  with  the 
male  members  of  the  family.  Thus,  Job's  sons  are  represented 
as  calling  their  sisters  to  eat  and  drink  with  them.^  Though 
the  case  of  Elkanah  may  imply  the  modem  custom  of  setting 
aside  a  portion  of  food  for  the  women,  after  present  day  Oriental 
habits,*  yet  Queen  Esther  not  only  ate  with  the  King,  her 
husband,  but  also  with  Haman,^  and  the  women  were  sharers  in 
Belshazzar's  feast.®  The  code  of  Hammurabi  indicates  that 
women  before  the  era  of  Abraham  were  carefully  protected  in 
personal  rights,  and  that  their  condition  was  higher  and  better 
than  in  most  Oriental  lands  to-day. 

79.  Queens. — In  ancient  Egypt  the  law  secured  the  right  of 
succession  to  the  rule  of  Egypt,  and  queens  swayed  over  that 
land  as  well  as  kings.  There  may  be  much  fancy  and  glamour 
gathered  about  the  classic  stories  of  Semiramis,  and  Dido  of 
Carthage  and  of  the  Cleopatras  of  Egypt,  and  of  Zenobia  of 
Palmyra,  and  of  Candace  of  Ethiopia.  That  they  were  women 
exalted  to  the  highest  place  of  power  in  the  gift  of  their  re- 
spective peoples  proves  the  high  respect  which  woman  did  com- 
mand in  that  olden  time.  In  the  face  of  customs  now  universal 
in  the  East,  tending  to  degrade  woman,  these  notable  instances 
show  that  woman  has  a  royal  supremacy  of  character,  which 
at  times  rises  above  and  defies  the  iron  law  of  custom.  Similar 
cases  are  given  in  the  sacred  Plebrew  records  of  Miriam  and 
Deborah,  interpreters  and  prophetesses  in  Israel.  Nor  were 
women  gifted  and  ambitious  in  evil,  wanting  in  the  qualities  of 
leadership  and  popularity,  of  which  Jezebel  and  Athaliah  were 
notable  examples  among  Israel's  historic  rulers. 

80.  Peasant  Women. — The  deep  degradation  of  the  peasant 

'  Pal.  Fund  Q.,  ipoi,  p.  69.  *  Num.  12:1.  '  Job.  1  :  4. 

•  I  Sam.  1:4.  •>  Esth.  7:1.  *  Dan.  5  :  a. 


66  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

women  of  the  Orient  is  graphically  pictured  by  Layard.  "These 
poor  creatures,  like  all  Arab  women,  were  exposed  to  constant 
hardships.  They  were  obliged  to  look  after  the  children,  make 
bread,  fetch  water,  and  cut  wood,  which  they  brought  home 
from  afar  on  their  heads.  .  .  .  They  wove  their  wool  and  goat's 
hair  into  cloths,  cai-pets,  and  tent-canvas;  were  left  to  strike  and 
raise  the  tents;  to  load  and  unload  the  beasts  of  burden,  when 
ihey  changed  camping-ground.  . . .  They  had  to  drive  the  sheep 
and  cows  to  the  pasture,  and  milk  them  at  night.  .  .  .  They 
carried  their  children  on  their  backs  during  the  march,  and 
even  when  employed  in  domestic  occupations."  They  brought 
water  from  the  river,  in  large  sheep  or  goat-skins  filled  and 
hung  on  the  back  by  cords  strapped  over  the  shoulders, 
and,  in  addition,  upon  it  was  frequently  seated  the  child  who 
could  not  be  left  and  was  unable  to  follow  its  mother  on  foot. 
"The  bundles  of  fire- wood  brought  from  a  considerable  dis- 
tance were  enormous,  completely  concealing  the  head  and 
shoulders  of  those  who  tottered  beneath  their  weight.  .  .  .  The 
men  sat  indolendy  by,  smoking  their  pipes  or  listening  to  a 
trilling  story  from  some  stray  Arab  of  the  desert."  ^ 

The  Palestine  woman  generally  carries  her  child  of  two  or 
three  years  old  on  the  shoulder  astride,  but  the  Gipsy  woman 
carries  her  child  on  the  hip,  a  custom  w^hich  Prof.  Conder  re- 
gards as  coming  from  India,  and  their  language  as  the  Scinde 
dialect,  from  the  original  Sanscrit.- 

8i.  Wife  Divorce. — Again,  the  multitude  of  flimsy  pretexts 
upon  which  a  woman  may  be  divorced  add  to  the  deplorable 
degradation  of  her  condition  in  most  Oriental  lands.  From 
his  long  residence  in  S}T:ia,  Prof.  Post  declares,  "Moslems  and 
Druses  put  away  their  waves  at  the  merest  caprice."^  "It 
requires  but  a  word  to  send  away  a  wife  of  many  years  and 
the  mother  of  a  large  family.  ^Moreover,  the  injured  woman 
cannot  take  her  children  with  her.  She  may  take  whatever 
property  she  brought  with  her,  and  did  not  make  over  to  her 
husband.     There  is  no  legal  redress  for  her.     The  act  of  di- 

» Nineveh,  vol.  I.,  360,  361.       '  Pal.  Fund  Q.,  1901,  p.  269.        '  Compare  Mark  lo  :  a. 


WOMAN   AMONG   ORIENTALS.  67 

vorce  is  not  an  offense  against  Moslem  law."  "The  Mos- 
lems write  a  form  of  marriage  contract,  but  require  no  bill  of 
divorcement.^  ...  If  the  wife  has  no  money  of  her  own, 
she  may  thus  suddenly  be  transferred  from  affluence  to  poverty." 

82.  Growing  Odious. — "It  is  a  fine  testimony  to  the  value 
of  the  principle  of  the  Christian  law  that  divorce  is  not  favorably 
regarded  unless  there  be  some  decided  ground  for  it.  A  Mos- 
lem who  sends  his  wife  away  for  incompatibility  gets  talked 
about,  and  few  care  to  face  the  odium.  ...  It  is  especially  un- 
popular to  dismiss  the  mother  of  a  family,  particularly  if  she 
have  sons.  Thus  the  detestable  law  of  Islam  has  had  to  bow  to 
custom  founded  on  the  principles  of  Christ's  gospel." 

The  general  testimony  of  the  best  observers  is  that  wom.an  is 
degraded  to  a  lower  condition  among  the  Moslems  than  among 
native  Hindus  and  pagans.  Lying  and  licentiousness  are  so 
common  as  to  be  utterly  shameless.  Ilhteracy,  ignorance,  and 
immorality  go  hand  in  hand,  plunging  woman  to  the  lowest  of 
low  depths.  In  Egypt  95  per  cent,  of  the  marriages  are  fol- 
lowed by  divorce.  It  is  a  disputed  question  whether  the  prophet 
Mohammed  could  read  or  write.  He  is  still  boastfully  called 
the  "imterate."2 

83.  Divorces  One-sided. — Worse  still,  "there  is  no  such  thing 
as  a  wife  getting  a  divorce  from  her  husband.  She  may  pro- 
cure a  legal  separation  and  support,  but  not  divorce  and 
freedom.  .  .  .  Oppressed  wives  often  flee  to  the  protection  of 
their  parents  or  brothers.  The  husband  can  compel  her  to 
return  if  he  wishes.  ...  A  woman  may  torment  her  husband 
until  he  pronounces  the  desired  and  decisive  words,  which  are 
as  binding  on  him  as  on  her.  She  seldom  does  this  unless  she 
has  independent  means."  Of  their  servile  position,  as  seen  by 
Lane  in  Egypt,  he  says,  "women  prepare  the  husband's  food, 
fetch  water,  spin  cotton,  linen,  or  woolen  yam,  and  make  the 
fuel,  which  is  composed  of  the  dung  of  cattle,  kneaded  with 
chopped  straw  and  formed  into  round  flat  cakes.  When  a 
poor  woman  goes  out  with  her  husband,  she  generally  walks 

'  Mark  10  :  4.  *  See  Zwemer,  "  Moslem  Lands." 


68  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

behind  him,  and  if  there  be  anything  for  either  of  them  to  carry, 
it  is  usually  borne  by  the  wife." 

84.  Woman  a  Drudge. — Among  the  peasants  of  Palestine 
"men  never  carry  anything."  While  a  woman  may  rarely  be 
yoked  to  the  plough,  yet  Dr.  ChapHn  and  Dr.  Conder  say  they 
have  seen  a  woman  pulling  a  plough,  side  by  side  with  a  donkey, 
on  the  plain  of  Sharon  or  elsewhere  in  modem  Palestine. 
Sacks,  bundles,  saddle-bags,  baby-sacks,  in  which  they  carry 
their  babies  on  their  backs,  and  almost  every  other  conceivable 
burden  do  the  women  carry  in  the  East;  this  is  the  common 
testimony  of  explorers. 

Even  the  wife  of  an  Arab  sheikh  prepares  the  dinners,  sees 
to  the  sacks  of  rice,  com,  barley,  coffee  and  supplies,  directs  the 
grinding  of  the  mills,  baking  of  bread,  churning  of  butter,  Ught- 
ing  of  fires,  and  distributes  the  supplies  asked  for.  Everything 
passes  through  her  hands.  Her  children,  "htde  naked  urchins, 
black  with  sun  and  wind,  with  a  long  tail  hanging  from  the 
crown  of  their  heads,  roll  in  the  ashes  or  on  the  ground "  near 
her.*  The  meal  she  has  prepared  for  her  husband  with  her  own 
hands  she  may  not  eat  with  him.  A  man  bringing  his  wife  to  a 
feast  is  now  quite  unknown  to  native  Orientals  under  Moslem 
rule.  Women  may  look  on  at  a  feast  through  a  lattice,  so  ar- 
ranged as  not  to  give  a  semblance  of  a  human  being  behind  it. 
She  is  not  the  friend  and  companion,  but  the  slave  of  her  lordly 
husband.  Women  do  the  field  work  in  the  East.  She  may 
have  fine  taste  and  skill  in  embroidery,  and  may  spend  her  time 
on  it,  but  whether  peasant  of  the  poorest,  or  wife  of  the  favored 
class,  both  are  alike,  servile  and  generally  ignorant.  Some 
Orientals  count  it  a  sin  to  teach  a  woman  to  read  or  write. 

85.  Women  Concealed. — The  modem  Oriental  custom  of  the 
seclusion  of  women  is  not  easily  overcome  by  protestant  Chris- 
tianity. Church  buildings  are  divided  by  a  curtain  or  lattice  or 
there  is  a  gallery  reserved  for  women.  "  In  many  of  the  Protes- 
tant Churches  the  building  is  divided  by  a  veil  and  the  women 
are  concealed  from  the  men.  .  .  .  Where  the  veil  is  abolished  the 

*  Layard,  Nineveh,  vol.  I.,  102. 


-#»»-»-**   -«»■ 


..TArf^vf 


^'y^^^^^iA*..^-'^ 


I  A  Amikah  Women  Chokinl 

(/>«/.  J!x/>.  Fund.) 


v.   hS 


Women  al   Mill. 

ROWS    OF    COINS    ON    HEAD-DRESS    OF    ONE   ON   THE    LEFT. 
(Festtr  &■  Co.l 


P.  68 


WOMAN   AMONG   ORIENTALS.  69 

women  occupy  one  side  and  the  men  the  other."  This  custom 
is  common  also  in  the  meeting-houses  of  the  Friends,  both  in 
England  and  America,  though  they  are  very  careful  to  avoid 
other  heathen  customs,  such  as  the  names  of  the  days  of  the 
week.  "A  public  assemblage  in  the  East,"  says  Prof.  Post, 
"is  generally  altogether  a  gathering  of  men.  Even  when  women 
are  present,  sheeted  Uke  ghosts,  an  allusion  to  them  in  an  address 
would  sound  strange  to  the  Oriental  ears."  To  begin  an  ad- 
dress in  our  customary  way,  "Ladies  and  Gentlemen,"  would 
shock  the  Oriental  mind.  If  under  polygamy  woman  is  not 
deprived  of  her  influence,  "she  has  not  much  influence  for  good, 
but  retains  a  vast  power  of  evil."  The  wives  and  daughters  of 
Emirs  and  rulers  secretly  sway  a  terrible  influence  through  their 
political  schemes  and  intrigues.  They  have  no  conscience 
and  often  no  mercy.  The  refinement  of  true  Christian  love  is 
impossible  in  such  a  community,  but  the  devotion  and  faithful- 
ness of  woman  exist  even  in  Turkey  and  India.  Christianity 
gives  a  new  position  to  woman,  and  is  laying  the  foundation  for 
a  new  civilization  in  all  Oriental  lands. 


XI. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE — NEIGHBORS,   KINSMEN. 

86.  Social  Basis. — Social  intercourse  in  the  East  springs 
from  kinship,  religion,  and  neighborly  residence.  The  famiUes 
of  a  tribe  by  intermarriage  become  so  closely  related  that 
practically  all  of  a  tribe  are  kindred.  This  is  characteristic 
of  the  nomads  of  the  desert  and  in  most  of  the  villages,  though 
famiUes  of  two  or  more  tribes  may  reside  in  the  same  village. 
Thus  kinship  is  the  basis  of  social  life  and  of  fellowship. 

ReUgion  and  proximity  tend  to  strengthen  the  social  relations 
primarily  formed  by  kinship.  The  stranger  coming  within  the 
territory  of  the  tribe  is  treated  as  a  guest,  because  by  an  ingen- 
ious and  necessary  Oriental  faction,  he  is  regarded  tempora- 
rily a  kinsman.  The  law  of  hospitaHty  is  founded  on  this 
pretty  fiction — ^if  it  is  a  fiction.  Is  it  not  rather  a  significant 
survival  of  the  deeper  fact,  and  a  recognition  of  the  great 
brotherhood  of  the  whole  human  race? 

87.  Social  Visits. — Social  intercourse  among  Orientals  is 
marked  by  studied  courtesy,  great  urbanity,  and  no  little 
familiarity.  Even  what  seem  to  us  their  tedious  formalities 
have  a  fervor  of  sincerity  and  national  dignity  of  deportment 
thrown  into  them  that  command  respect. 

Calls  of  courtesy  are  usually  made  on  gala  days,  festal  or 
birthdays,  or  times  of  sickness  and  affliction.  Ordinary 
visiting-calls  are  scarcely  knovm  in  native  Oriental  communi- 
ties. The  men  meet  daily  in  the  market  and  the  women  at  the; 
well  or  around  the  village  oven,  so  that  news  passes  from  one 
to  another  with  marvelous  celerity.  Visiting  is  a  real  business 
when  it  is  done  by  Orientals.  Prof.  Post,  out  of  his  experience, 
declares,  "Visitors  must  always  be  received.  To  send  word 
tliat  you  are  engaged  or  at  dinner  would  be  considered  a  wanton 
70 


SOCIAL   INTERCOURSE — NEIGHBORS,   KINSMEN.         7 1 

insult.  Even  sickness  is  not  a  reason  for  refusing  to  see  friends. 
In  fact,  they  walk  right  in  where  a  meal  is  being  served  or  into 
a  sick  chamber.  .  .  .  Visitors  often  sit  for  hours,  sometimes  all 
day.  They  generally  spend  the  whole  evening."  One  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  of  a  physician  in  the  East  is  to  keep  the 
sick  free  from  such  intrusions.  Orientals  will  keep  coming 
and  going,  not  giving  the  host  time  even  to  eat.  So  our  Lord 
and  his  disciples  were  thronged  with  visitors,  and  were  forced 
to  slip  away  from  the  house  secretly,  into  a  desert  place,  to  rest.^ 
Sometimes  when  the  visitor  comes  suddenly  he  may  be  obliged 
or  desired  to  stand  outside  until  the  room  is  put  in  order  to 
receive  him.  Or,  if  a  man  meets  a  friend  whom  he  wishes  to 
take  home  with  him,  he  hastens  to  his  tent  or  house  in  advance, 
to  have  the  room  made  ready,  and  then  goes  back  to  bring  his 
friend.  This  may  be  alluded  to  in  the  sa}dng  of  Jesus,  "I  go 
to  prepare  a  place  for  you."^ 

88.  Guests. — In  Jerusalem,  pilgrims  to  feasts  may  be  guests 
with  the  same  family,  year  after  year.  Mr.  Haddad  gives  an 
illustration:  "When  visiting  Jerusalem  at  Easter,  I  used  to  send 
word  by  post  from  Damascus  or  by  messenger  from  Beerah, 
three  hours'  journey  from  Jerusalem,  to  the  family  I  was  accus- 
tomed to  stay  with  on  these  occasions."  So  Jesus  sent  word 
when  he  was  to  keep  the  passover  with  a  family  in  Jerusalem.^ 

Assemblages  or  visits  of  neighbors,  for  congratulation  and 
sympathy,  are  frequent  and  prolonged  in  the  East.  It  is  no 
exaggeration  of  daily  life  in  the  Orient  to  say  that  men  sit  with 
the  afllicted,  the  sick,  or  the  distressed  for  the  entire  day. 
So  Job's  friends  are  represented  as  sitting  silent  with  him  for 
seven  days  and  seven  nights.* 

89.  No  Privacy. — Orientals  are  gregarious  and,  therefore, 
social.  Villages  and  hamlets  consist  of  houses  crowded  to- 
gether. Houses  there  are  rarely  isolated.  The  Eastern  house 
itself  is  not  arranged  for  privacy,  except  upon  the  flat  roof. 
Among  the  peasants  the  house  consists  of  one  room,  with  a 
curtain  across  a  comer,  or  if  there  are  several  rooms,  these 

'  WixV.  6  :  ,31,  32.  'John  14  :  2.  'Mark  14  :  13-15.  *  Job.  z  :  13. 


72  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

open  into  a  central  court,  so  that  when  one  has  entered  the 
common  enclosure  he  can  see  into  all  the  rooms  of  the  house. 
A  single  house  may  be  hive-like,  the  abode  of  many  branches 
of  the  same  family,  so  that  privacy  and  domestic  seclusion  in 
the  Western  sense  are  impossible.  They  enjoy,  however, 
social  conditions  to  which  we  are  utter  strangers.  Each  house- 
hold shares  their  joys  and  sorrows.  One  who  has  spent  a 
life-time  among  them  testifies:  "What  is  lacking  in  depth  of 
feeling  is  made  up  in  breadth.  Childlike,  the  whole  commune 
swings  easily  from  the  extreme  of  sorrow  to  the  extreme  of  joy. 
An  assembly  for  congratulation  with  the  shepherd,  who  had 
found  his  lost  sheep,  was  as  natural  to  the  Orientals  as  it  would 
be  unnatural  to  us.^  It  is  a  question  whether  the  Oriental 
has  not  more  of  common  humanity  in  this  phase  of  life  than 
there  is  in  the  cold  isolation  and  intense  individualism  of  the 
Occident." 

90.  Greetings. — The  Orientals  upon  entering  one  another's 
dwellings  have  customs  and  courtesies  of  their  own.  These 
vary  widely.  In  coming  to  the  house  of  a  Moslem  a  man 
makes  his  coming  known  by  a  peculiar  call,  in  order  that  the 
women  inside  may  retire  to  their  own  apartment  before  he 
enters.  The  neighbor  would  enter  without  further  formality. 
The  host  would  greet  the  caller  with  "enter"  or  "welcome." 
The  man  may  drop  his  shoes  or  sandals  outside  the  door.  Old 
friends  or  persons  of  equal  rank,  when  thus  meeting,  warmly 
embrace  each  other.  They  seem  almost  to  fall  upon  one 
another.  "Each  places  his  right  hand  upon  the  other's  left 
shoulder,"  and  kisses  him  on  the  right  cheek,  then,  "putting  the 
left  hand  on  the  other's  right  shoulder,  again  kisses  him  on  the 
left  cheek."  So  Jacob  received  and  kissed  his  father  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  embraced  and  kissed  Joseph's  sons.^  Thus, 
Absalom  treacherously  stole  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  Joab 
slew  his  brother  while  pretending  to  greet  him  vn\h  a  kiss.^ 
And  Judas  betrayed  his  Lord  with  a  kiss  of  greeting.*     There 

Luke  15:6.  *  Gen.  27  :  27;  48  :  10. 

»  a  Sara.  IS  :  s;  ao  :  9.  *  Matt.  26  :  49;  Luke  22  :  48. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE— NEIGHBORS,   KINSMEN.         73 

are  about  forty  allusions  to  this  mode  of  greeting  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

"Intimates  greet  one  another  with  a  kiss,  without  regard  to 
sex.  Esau  embraced  his  brother  Jacob,  and  'fell  on  his  neck 
and  kissed  him ';  Jacob  kissed  Rachel,  and  Laban  ran  to  meet 
and  embrace  Jacob,  'and  kissed  him,'  Aaron  met  his  brother 
Moses  and  'kissed  him.'  "^ 

A  Bedouin  camel-driver  met  a  friend,  says  an  old  traveler, 
"  when  they  kissed  each  other  five  times  on  the  cheek,  holding 
the  hand,  and  asking  questions  at  the  same  time."  And  Dr. 
Tristram  observed  that  "ordinary  acquaintances  touch  each 
other's  hand,  and  then  kiss  their  own,  and  apply  it  to  their 
forehead,  lips,  and  breast.  .  .  .  The  kiss  on  either  cheek  is  a 
sign  of  close  intimacy.  ...  It  is  the  mark,  not  of  gratitude  nor 
of  homage,  but  of  unselfish  love  and  esteem."^  The  betrayal 
of  Judas  was  thus  intensified  as  the  blackest  of  treachery. 

91.  Sitting  and  Conversation. — After  this  act  of  greeting, 
other  acts  of  welcome  would  follow.  The  salutation  might 
be  briefer  between  familiar  neighbors  than  between  others. 
The  seat  of  honor  is  farthest  from  the  door  and  at  his  right 
hand.  So  the  King's  mother  sat  on  the  right  hand  of  Solomon.^ 
To  this  seat  the  host  would  point,  and  by  expostulation  and 
entreaty  persuade  his  caller  to  occupy  it.  They  sit  on  the  floor, 
on  a  mat,  or  rug,  with  their  feet  curled  under  them,  to  conceal 
them,  tailor-fashion.  The  conversation  is  rapid  and  Hvely, 
all  talking  at  the  same  time.  The  exclamations  might  run 
thus:  "Hundred  welcomes";  "May  God  preserve  you"; 
"Peace  be  upon  you";  "Your  day  be  happy";  "May  your  day 
be  blessed";  "Peace  to  your  family";  "God  preserve  your 
health";  "Peace  to  this  house."  These  throw  light  on  our 
Lord's  directions  in  sending  out  his  disciples.* 

92.  Topics  Tabooed.  — In  a  Moslem,  Buddhist,  or  non- 
Christian  dwelling  the  Oriental  would  not  ask  about  his  neigh- 

>  Gen.  29  :  n-13;  33  :  4;  Ex.  4  :  27.  'Eastern  Customs,  205. 

•  I  Kings  2  :  19;  see  also  Ps.  16  :  11  and  45  :  9;  Mark  14  :  62  and  16  :  19;  Acts  5  :  31 
and  7  :  56. 

♦Compare  Matt.  10  :  12,  13  with  Luke  10  :  5. 


74  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

bor's  wife.  If  the  families  are  not  so  familiar  in  their  friend- 
ships, the  greetings  may  be  carried  to  v/hat  would  seem  to  us 
an  absurd  extent;  good  wishes  and  overflowing  compliments 
being  repeated  again  and  again,  thus,  "Peace  of  God  upon  you"; 
"May  your  day  be  enriched";  "By  the  blessing  of  your  face"; 
"Your  presence  is  the  sun  of  my  house";  "May  you  be  happy"; 
"In  your  presence,  'happy'";  "You  are  comfortable — I  am 
comfortable,"  which  means,  "I  am  comfortable  if  you  are." 
After  a  pause,  these  same  courtesies  may  be  repeated,  and  gone 
over  many  times.  The  Persian  would  say:  "Is  thy  exalted 
high  condition  good?"  "May  thy  shadow  never  be  removed 
from  my  head!" 

93.  Refreshments. — Following  these  prolonged  courtesies  of 
welcome  and  inquiries  as  to  health,  and  profuse  and  hearty 
good  wishes  for  future  health  and  prosperity,  a  servant,  or  the 
host,  may  present  a  dainty  sip  of  sweetened  water,  flavored  with 
orange  blossoms  or  preserves,  followed  by  cold  water  to  wash  it 
dov/n.  Meanwhile  a  basin  has  been  brought  and  a  pitcher  of 
water  to  wash  the  feet,  if  that  was  necessary.  In  village  houses 
the  guest  may  be  delicately  sprayed  with  some  deliciously  per- 
fumed rose-water,  or  sweet-smelling  aromatic  spices  may  be 
scattered  about  him.  This,  it  is  said,  is  to  show  what  sweet 
thoughts  the  family  has  toward  the  guest. 

94.  Politely  Detained. — Should  he  rise  to  depart,  he  will  be 
pressed  to  stay.  Some  simple  sweetmeats  \\i\\  be  brought,  with 
further  social  chat.  If  he  again  rises,  again  "stay,  not  yet,  not 
so  soon"  greets  him,  and  other  refreshments  appear,  without 
apparent  end.  After  a  prolonged  entertainment,  consuming 
most  of  the  morning  or  the  day,  finally  a  tiny  cup  of  cofifee  may 
be  brewed  and  offered.  The  tiny  cup,  wthout  a  handle,  is 
placed  within  another  cup,  for  the  inner  one  is  too  hot  to  touch, 
and  he  is  warned  to  let  it  cool  before  venturing  to  sip  it.  This  is 
done  still  further  to  prolong  his  stay.  The  "courteous  host 
continues  to  dissuade  his  guest  from  bringing  the  visit  or  call  to 
a  close, "  says  Prof.  Grant.  When  the  parting  finally  comes, 
the  departing  S}Tian  guest  may  say,  "A  K/iatrak,'^  "By  your 


SOCIAL   INTERCOURSE — NEIGHBORS,    KINSMEN.  75 

leave,"  and  the  host,  finding  that  he  cannot  longer  detain  the 
friend,  replies,  via'  Salameh,  "with  peace,"  that  is,  "Go  in 
peace,"  and  again  the  friend  responds,  "Peace  to  you."  So  the 
Bible  story  makes  the  old  man  say,  "Peace  be  with  thee."* 
Thus  Amasa  responded  to  David,  "Peace,  peace  be  unto  thee, 
and  peace  to  thy  helpers."^  See  other  instances,  as  the  spies,^ 
and  of  our  Lord  to  his  disciples.* 

95.  Going  with  the  Gtiest. — It  is  quite  in  keeping  with  Oriental 
politeness  to  accompany  the  departing  guest  a  certain  distance 
on  the  way,  depending  upon  the  rank  or  character  of  the  friend. 
If  of  a  lower  rank,  the  host  rises  and  goes  toward  the  door;  if 
equal,  he  accompanies  him  to  the  door,  if  superior,  the  host 
goes  to  the  gate  and  a  distance,  sometimes  for  several  hours. 
This  is  a  high  type  of  politeness,  and  is  called  "bringing  the 
guest  on  his  way."  So  Paul  was  accompanied  from  Tyre 
and  from  Caesarea  by  Mnason  and  others.^  Mr.  Haddad,  out 
of  his  experience  as  a  native  Syrian,  says,  "When  a  person 
is  going  away,  friends  vnll  go  with  him  a  few  miles,  and  kiss 
at  parting."  "  When  I  was  leaving  some  Mt.  Lebanon  friends, 
they  followed  me  for  two  hours  until  I  v/as  obliged  to  tell  them 
that  they  must  go  no  further."  Compare  the  case  of  Naomi 
and  Ruth.« 

96.  Greeting  and  Parting. — Other  residents  of  the  East  tell 
of  embracing  as  characteristic  of  Oriental  greetings  and  part- 
ings. Men  as  well  as  women  throw  their  arms  around  each 
other's  necks  and  kiss  each  other  on  both  cheeks.  In  Syria, 
embracing  is  not  clasping  in  the  arms,  but  grasping  the  shoulders, 
as  before  described,  and  placing  the  head  over  one  shoulder, 
and  then  over  the  other,  often  without  kissing.  This  resembles 
the  ancient  mode  of  "falling  on  the  neck."  So  Paul  embraced 
his  disciples.''  In  like  manner  the  father  welcomed  his  prodigal 
son.^ 

In  Syria,  Prof.  Grant  observed  a  very  graceful  greeting,  the 
right  hand  sweeping  downward  toward  the  ground,  or  touching 

'  Tudg.  19  :  20.  '  I  Chron.  12  :  18.  '  J"*^?'  ^^  '  ^-''* 

*Luke  24  :  36  ;  Jolm  20  :  10.  'Acts  ai  :  5,  15,  16.  •Ruth  i. 

*  Acts  ao  :  i,  10,  37.  'Luke  15  :  20. 


76  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

the  breast,  then  the  lips  and  forehead.  The  response  was 
prompt  and  by  the  same  set  of  gestures.  Kissing  is  more  fre- 
quent among  women  friends,  meeting  after  a  separation,  than 
among  men.  It  is  still  true,  as  in  our  Lord's  day,  that  some  love 
7Mblic  greetings,  as  in  the  market-place.^ 

*  Matt.  23  :  7. 


XII. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE — SALUTATIONS. 

97.  Salutations  Important. — Salutations  among  Orientals 
precede  and  follow  all  intercourse.  Half  and  sometimes  nine- 
tenths  of  many  of  their  letters  consist  of  salutations.  Notice 
the  many  in  Paul's  letter  to  tlie  Romans,  i6th  chapter.*  In 
some  business  letters  the  greetings  may  be  spun  out  over  one  or 
two  pages,  and  the  business  put  into  a  single  sentence.  "Men 
will  stop  in  the  midst  of  conversation  and  exchange  a  series  of 
complimentary  expressions.  A  necessary  prelude  to  intercourse 
between  master  and  servant  or  monarch  and  subject  is  the  salu- 
tation. As  showing  how  rude  the  omission  of  it  is  regarded  by 
Orientals,  Prof.  Post  tells  of  a  Caliph  on  a  hunting  expedition 
calling  out  to  a  shepherd  lad:  "Boy,  fetch  me  that  gazelle." 
The  youth  raised  his  head  and  replied:  "You  are  ignorant  of 
well-born  men  when  you  speak  so  contemptuously  to  me. 
Your  words  are  the  words  of  a  giant,  but  your  manners  are  the 
manners  of  an  ass!"  The  Caliph,  in  anger,  answered,  "You 
wretch!  Do  you  not  know  me ? "  The  youth  retorted,  "  Your 
want  of  manners  has  caused  me  to  know  you,  but  you  began  to 
talk  to  me  without  first  saluting  me!"  This  lack  of  salutation 
of  Naaman  by  Elisha  greatly  angered  the  Syrian  general.  For 
the  prophet  merely  sent  a  messenger  to  tell  him  what  to  do  to 
be  cured.^ 

98.  Makes  Bonds. — On  the  other  hand,  the  customary  salu- 
tation puts  even  the  stranger  within  the  charmed  circle  of  kin- 
ship. Dr.  Trumbull  relates  how  he  unwittingly  brought  him- 
self and  his  whole  party  within  the  bonds  of  hospitality  of  a 
Sheikh  and  his  tribe  by  politely  saluting  a  passing  Bedouin 
woman.  He  and  his  companions  were  compelled  by  the  Sheikh 
to  halt,  dismount,  wait  for  a  fire  to  be  kindled,  coffee  to  be  made 

'See  1  Cor.  i6  :  19-21;   Gal.  i;  Eph.  i;  Col.  1.  ^2  Kings  s  :  10. 

77 


78  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  sensed,  and  the  Sheikh  urged  them  further  to  remain  until 
a  lamb  should  be  slain  and  cooked,  and  bread  baked  for  the 
part}'.  After  all  this  trouble,  the  Oriental  v.as  profuse  in  his 
thanks  for  the  opportunity  to  entertain  them,  he  would  take  no 
payment  of  the  chance  stranger,  but  helped  him  to  mount  his 
horse  and  kissed  the  hands  of  the  mounting  guest,  and  blessed 
him  with  a  parting  Salaam,  "Peace, "  as  he  departed. 

99.  Salaams. — These  salaams  and  salutations  take  time,  but 
time  is  of  no  value  to  the  Asiatic.  Business  can  wait,  as  of 
secondary  moment.  The  amenities  of  life  are  a  necessity; 
work,  trade,  learning,  and  other  things  are  mere  incidentals. 
The  notables,  civil  and  religious,  require  an  exceptional  amount 
of  formality  and  deference  in  their  salutations.  Their  hand  or 
the  hems  of  the  garments  must  be  kissed,  the  bowing  and  genu- 
flections must  be  profuse,  and  their  blessings  invoked  on  every 
conceivable  occasion. 

All  this  implies  much  delay.  Several  minutes  are  spent  in 
bowing,  gesturing,  and  repeating  the  words,  Salaam,  alai-Kum, 
"Peace  be  upon  you,  "and  the  reply,  Wa-alai-Kum  as-saldm, 
"On  you  be  peace,"  that  is,  "of  God."  So  EHsha  saluted  the 
Shunammite — Shalom,  "Peace  to  thee,"  "peace  upon  thy 
husband,"  "peace  upon  thy  child."  And  the  Shunammite 
answered  by  the  customary  salutation,  ''Shalom,  Peace."  ^ 
Then  the  woman  caught  EHsha  by  his  feet — a  further  customary 
act  in  salutation.  In  Syria  the  physician  is  nov/  so  saluted  at 
almost  every  visit  to  a  hospital.  "So  quickly  is  this  done," 
says  Prof.  Post,  "that  there  is  no  chance  to  prevent  it."  " It  was 
peculiarly  un-Oriental  for  Gahazi  to  endeavor  to  frustrate  the 
woman's  homage  to  Elisha,  and  to  interfere  with  her  petition. 
. . .  Syrian  servants  do  not  like  to  turn  away  street  beggars  even 
from  their  masters,  lest  they  defraud  them  of  some  possible 
alms." 

100.  The  Delays. — When  these  formalities  in  saluting  are  so 
punctiliously  observed,  we  can  imagine  the  delays.     They  may 

'  2  Kings  4  :  26.  She  did  not  s;iy,  "  It  is  well,"  as  the  A.  V.  incorrectly  renders  the 
greetings. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE — SALUTATIONS.  79 

be  repeated  ten  times,  and  a  long  exchange  of  news,  a  chat  in 
the  shade  of  a  tree,  a  narghileh  or  two,  come  fairly  within  tlie 
category  of  a  salutation,  says  Prof.  Post.  The  Arabs,  accord- 
ing to  Stapfer,  still  say,  Marhaba,  "May  you  be  enlarged," 
which  may  correspond  to  the  New  Testament  greeting,  chairein, 
"hail"  or  "rejoice,"  while  they  have  also  the  counterpart, 
eirene  soi,  "Peace  to  you,"  or  chaire,  "Be  joyful."  This  was 
the  same  as  the  Roman  salute  in  our  Lord's  day,  salve,  "Be 
in  health"  and  vale,  "well  or  fare  (thee)  well";  the  latter 
was  said  at  parting.  W.  M.  Thomson  asserts  that  there  is  such 
an  amount  of  insincerity,  flattery  and  falsehood  in  the  terms 
of  salutation  prescribed  by  etiquette  that  our  Lord  wished  his 
disciples  "to  dispense  with  them  as  far  as  possible."^  But 
the  hindrance  to  their  work  was  also  a  strong  reason  for  the 
command.  So,  too,  he  forbade  them  to  go  from  house  to  house.^ 
For  when  a  stranger  arrives  in  an  Oriental  village,  strict  eti- 
quette requires  all  the  famiHes,  one  after  another,  to  invite  him 
to  a  meal.  This  would  take  much  time,  for  formal  salutations 
must  be  made  to  every  person  and  upon  every  occasion.  Any 
business  calling  for  despatch  could  not  be  done  were  one  to 
stop  for  salutations.  Hence,  the  Scripture  charge  "not  to 
salute"  any  by  the  way.^ 

loi.  The  Strict  Etiquette. — Modem  Moslems  have  special 
customs  to  observe  in  salutations.  Thus,  one  ridmg  should 
first  salute  a  person  on  foot;  one  who  passes  by  should  first  salute 
persons  standing  or  sitting;  a  small  party  those  of  a  large  party; 
a  young  person  should  be  first  to  salute  the  aged.  One  who 
enters  the  house  should  first  salute  the  people  of  that  house, 
and  do  the  same  when  leaving  it.  But  in  a  crowded  city,  or  on 
a  road  where  m.any  are  passing,  it  is  not  necessary  to  salute 
many  whom  one  may  pass.  And  yet,  some  man  of  rank  or  a 
venerable  Sheikh  usually  salutes  another  who  appears  to  be  of 
rank,  of  wealth,  or  of  learning,  even  in  a  crowded  street;  a  salu- 
tation must  always  be  returned.  If,  however,  one  should  salute 
another  of  a  different  religion  by  mistake,  as  a  Moslem  greeting 

'  See  Luke  10  :  4.  '  Luke  10  :  7.  '2  Kings  4  :  29  ;  Luke  10  :  4. 


8o  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

a  Christian,  the  latter  need  not  return  it,  and  the  former,  on 
discovering  his  mistake,  will  generally  revoke  his  salutation,  or, 
if  first  greeted,  will  respond,  "Peace  be  on  us,"  meaning  on  any 
of  the  same  faith. 

102.  Returning  Salutations. — With  polite  Orientals  it  is  the 
custom  for  one  who  gives  or  returns  a  salutation  to  touch  his 
breast  wath  his  right  hand  when  gi-ving  the  salaam,  or  he  may 
touch  his  lips,  his  forehead,  or  his  turban.  An  inferior  or  a 
subject  simply  goes  through  the  gestures  to  a  m.an  of  high  rank, 
and  does  not  speak  his  salaam.  He  may  further  take  the  hand 
of  a  superior  and  kiss  it  and  put  it  to  his  forehead.  In  the 
fawning  conduct  of  Absalom  this  mode  of  salutation  was  em- 
ployed.^ 

103.  Shalom,  "  Peace" — The  most  common  Hebrew  phrase 
in  salutation  was  Shalom,  "Peace,"  "prosperity."  The 
stem-word  meant  "to  restore,"  "make  good,"  or  "to  complete," 
then  "to  live  in  peace."  Thus  Oriental  monarchs  began  their 
decrees  by  this  salutation,  as  Nebuchadnezzar  did,  "Peace  be 
multiplied  unto  you."  ^  And  it  was  the  word  of  dismissal  and 
benediction  at  the  conclusion  of  an  inter\'iew.^  So  Jethro 
parted  with  Moses,  and  it  was  part  of  the  blessing  of  Jehovah 
to  Aaron.*  With  this  (Shalom,  "peace")  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
greeted  Gideon,^  and  David  and  Jonathan  used  this  salutation.* 
With  this  benediction  the  prophet  Elisha  sent  Naaman  healed  to 
his  own  land.'  Priests  were  also  accustomed  to  dismiss  suppli- 
ants with  the  same  blessing.^ 

The  Korean  village  peasants  salute  the  American  missionary 
with,  "Have  you  come  in  peace?"  And  when  he  departs,  the 
parting  salutation  is,  "May  you  go  in  the  peace  of  God!"  * 

104.  '^ Grace  in  Salutation." — In  New  Testament  times  the 
Greek  and  Latin  equivalents — eirene  dund  salve,  "peace,"  were 
the  words  of  greeting  and  parting  in  speech  and  in  epistle,  more 
frequently  used  than  any  other,  except  "grace."     The  thirteen 

'  a  Sam.  is  :  5;  see  also  Job  31:7.  '  Dan.  4:1;  6  :  25;  Esther  9  :  30. 

'Gen.  26  :  29-31.  *  Ex.  4  :  18;   Num.  6  :  26.  '  Jud^.  6  :  23. 

•  I  Sam.  20  :  42;   25  :  6,  35;   2  Sam.  15  :  9,  27.  '  2  Kings  s  :  19. 

•  JudR.  18  :  6;  i  Sam.  i  ;  17;  Jer.  6  ;  14;  8:11. 

•  Nearer  and  Farther  East,"  p.  267. 


SOCIAL   INTERCOURSE — SALUTATIONS.  8  I 

Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul  begin  with  "peace"  be  multiplied 
unto  you,  frequently  coupled  with  grace,  love,  or  mercy  also. 
The  two  Epistles  of  Peter  open  with  a  like  salutation.  The 
angel  Gabriel  greeted  Mary  with  X^'-f^,  Chaire,  "joy,"  or 
"hail."^  So  the  soldiers  mockmgly  greeted  Jesus.^  It  is  sig- 
nificant that  the  Aposde  John  forbade  Christians  thus  to 
salute  apostates  and  unbelievers,^  lest  they  seem  to  share  in 
the  unbelief.  Paul's  letters  were  usually  written  by  an  amanu- 
ensis, but  he  added  the  closing  salutations  with  his  owia  hand.* 
105.  Symbols  and  Gestures. — Lane  notes  that  in  Egj^pt  com- 
pliments usually  followed  the  salaam,  such  as  "God  bless  thee," 
"God  preserve  thee."  When  one  asked  "Your  health?"  the 
response  would  be  "Praise  God,"  the  tone  of  voice  alone  indi- 
cating whether  the  person  was  ill  or  well.  When  a  friend  meets 
another  that  has  been  absent  several  days,  after  the  salaam,  he 
declares,  "Thou  hast  made  us  desolate  by  thy  absence,"  and  is 
answered,  "May  God  not  make  us  desolate."  If  one  happens 
to  sneeze,  he  exclaims,  "Praise  God,"  to  which  others  reply, 
"  God  have  mercy  "  or  "  God  guide  us."  If  he  makes  a  breach 
of  good  manners  he  makes  apology  for  it  by  exclaiming,  "I 
beg  pardon  of  God,  the  great."  Some  imaginative  Orientals 
explain  the  gestures  of  the  hand  in  salutation,  especially  touch- 
ing the  head,  the  lips,  and  the  breast,  as  symbolizing,  "with  my 
head  I  worship,  with  my  lips  I  honor,  with  my  heart  I  love  thee." 

«  Luke  I  :  28.  '  John  19  :  3.  '2  John  9  :  xo. 

*  I  Cor.  16  :  21,  23;  Col.  4  :  18;  2  Thess.  3  :  17. 


XIII. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE — HOSPITALITY. 

io6.  Tokens. — The  old  Roman  dramatist,  Plautus,  relates  a 
story  that  graphically  illustrates  one  feature  of  Oriental  hospi- 
tality. The  old  Latins  had  a  token  of  hospitality,  tessera 
Hospitales,  consisting  of  a  tile  of  wood  or  stone,  which  they 
divided  into  two  pieces.  Each  wrote  his  name  upon  a  piece,  and 
at  parting  they  exchanged  pieces.  Hanno  inquired  of  a  stranger 
about  an  old  guest,  and  was  surprised  to  find  that  he  was  ad- 
dressing the  person  he  asked  for.  Then  to  test  the  identity  of 
the  person,  he  drew  out  a  token  of  hospitality,  saying,  "Look 
carefully  at  this  tessera."  And  the  man  replied,  "I  have  the 
exact  counterpart  of  it  in  the  house."  Hanno  answered,  "I 
rejoice  to  meet  thee.  Thy  father  was  my  guest,  I  divided  this 
token  \\'ith  him."  The  other  responded,  "Yea,  and  thou  shalt 
have  home  with  me;  I  reverence  hospitality." 

107.  A  Foe-guest.— The  Oriental  idea  of  hospitality  is  vividly 
illustrated  also  by  the  fact  that  the  host  in  the  East  gives  the 
foremost  place  even  to  an  enemy,  so  long  as  that  enemy  is  his 
guest.  Such  a  guest  is  perfectly  safe  from  harm  while  he  re- 
mains within  this  charmed  circle  of  Oriental  hospitaUty. 

Mr.  MacGregor,  "Rob  Roy,"  tells  how  he  adroitly  outwatted 
a  Sheikh,  who  had  made  him  prisoner,  by  using  strategem  in 
getting  the  Arab  to  eat  salt  in  his  presence.  Partaking  of 
salt  together,  even  by  accident,  is  regarded  among  Arabs  as  a 
pledge  of  friendship.  Thus,  MacGregor  had  become  the  Arab's 
guest,  "We  had  now  eaten  salt  together,  and  in  his  ovvti  tent, 
and  so  the  Sheikh  was  bound  by  the  strongest  tie,  and  he  knew 
it." 

108.  Stranger-guest.— The  wandering  Bedouins  regard  every 
stranger  as  a  guest.  Burckhardt  relates,  "We  alighted  at  an 
encampment  of  Bedouins,  and  entered  the  Sheikh's  tent,  though 

82 


Killing  the  Fatted  Calf. 

(Cofyright  by  i'nder-wood  &  Uiiderivood,  .\'ew  York.) 


SOCIAL   INTERCOURSE — HOSPITALITY.  83 

he  was  absent.  The  Arabs  had  a  long  and  fierce  dispute  among 
themselves  to  decide  who  should  have  the  honor  of  furnishing 
us  a  supper  and  a  breakfast  next  morning.  He  who  first 
sees  a  stranger  from  afar,  and  exclaims,  There  comes  my  guest, 
has  the  right  of  entertaining  him,  whatever  tent  he  may  alight 
at."  "A  lamb  was  killed  for  me,  which  was  an  act  of  great 
hospitality;  for  these  Bedouins  are  poor,  and  a  lamb  was  worth 
a  sum  that  would  afford  a  supply  of  butter  and  bread  to  the 
family  for  a  whole  week." 

This  throws  hght  on  an  early  and  thoroughly  Oriental  ex- 
ample of  hospitality  mentioned  in  Scripture.  Abraham  "sat  in 
the  tent  door  in  the  heat  of  the  day; . . .  and,  lo,  three  men  stood 
over  against  him:  and  when  he  saw  them,  he  ran  to  meet  them 
from  the  tent  door,  and  bowed  himself  to  the  earth."  ^  The 
sitting  in  the  tent,  the  running  to  greet  them,  the  low  bowing,  the 
salaam,  the  water  for  the  feet,  the  rest  in  the  shade  of  a  tree,  the 
bit  of  refreshments,  the  baking  of  bread,  the  slaying  of  a  calf — 
are  courtesies  that  every  modern  traveler  has  experienced  in  the 
East  among  native  tribes  whose  simple  habits  of  hospitality 
have  not  been  corrupted  by  contact  with  Western  civilization. 

109.  Lot  and  Job. — In  like  manner,  even  Lot,  though  dwell- 
ing among  the  coarse,  wicked  people  of  Sodom,  would  not  allow 
two  strangers  to  abide  in  the  street,  but  insisted  upon  entertain- 
ing them  in  the  house,  and  it  proved  that  he  had  unawares  se- 
cured two  angels  for  his  guests.^  So  Jethro  reproved  his 
daughters,  when  they  reported  meeting  a  stranger  in  a  Alidian 
desert.  "Where  is  he?  Why  is  it  that  ye  have  left  the  man? 
Call  him,  that  he  may  eat  bread";  and  that  man  proved  to  be 
Moses.^ 

Job  indicates  his  character  by  asserting,  "The  stranger  did 
not  lodge  in  the  street:  but  I  opened  my  doors  to  the  traveller."  * 
Still  another  typical  example  of  ancient  Oriental  hospitality  is 
that  of  Gideon,  who  found  a  stranger  sitting  under  a  terebinth 
tree  at  Ophrah,  and  besought  him  not  to  depart  until  the  cus- 
tomary present  could  be  brought.     So  Gideon  made  ready  a 

•Gen.  18:  I,  2.  2  Gen.  19:1-3.  »  Ex.  2  :  20.  <  Job  31  :  32. 


84  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

kid  and  baked  cakes  of  bread,  and  brought  them  in  a  basket  and 
in  a  pot  to  entertain  the  stninger  under  the  oak  or  terebinth 
tree.  He  too  was  surprised  to  discover  that  he  had  entertained 
an  angel  unawares.^ 

no.  Arab  Hospitality. — Modern  travelers,  as  Burckhardt, 
Morier,  Robinson,  Harmer,  Thomson,  Hamlin,  Pococke,  Irby 
and  Mangles,  and  many  others  testify  to  the  continuance  of  this 
custom  among  Bedouins  to  this  day. 

But  Palmer  did  not  gain  a  very  rose-colored  idea  of  the 
Kerek-Arabs  on  this  point.  A  Sheikh  of  the  Beni-Hamideh 
tribe  invited  them  to  feed  at  his  tents.  Palmer  says,  "Arabs  are 
still  as  fond  as  ever  of  exercising  the  virtue  of  hospitahty.  As 
they  practice  it,  it  is  a  lucrative  speculation.  The  Bedawi 
Sheikh,  knowing  that  he  must  not  nowadays  expect  to  entertain 
angels  unawares,  takes  especial  care  to  entertam  only  such  as 
can  pay  a  round  sum  for  the  accommodation  or  give  then-  host 
a  good  dinner  in  return.  The  casual  and  impecunious  stranger 
may,  it  is  fa-ue,  claim  the  traditional  three  days'  board  and  lodg- 
ing, but  he  must  be  content  uith  the  scraps  'that  fall  from  the 
rich  man's  table,'  and  prepare  to  hear  very  outspoken  hints  of  the 
inadvisability  of  his  presence."  And  of  his  experience  among 
the  Arabs  in  the  Mountains  of  Moab,  a  pastoral  tribe,  Palmer 
adds:  "On  arriving  at  an  encampment,  the  traveler  enters  from 
behind,  and  makes  for  the  Sheikh's  tent,  not  dismounting  until 
he  reaches  the  door.  This  is,  in  most  cases,  a  necessary  pre- 
caution." He  was  provided  an  extemporized  divan,  made  of 
carpets  and  clothing,  and  served  with  leben  and  coffee.  If 
you  stay  the  night,  a  male  kid  is  cooked,  and  the  scraps  passed 
over  the  curtain  into  the  women's  apartment  for  the  women  and 
servants  to  eat.  They  talk,  laugh,  smoke,  and  quarrel  alter- 
nately, until  sleep  overtakes  them.  He  adds,  "On  leaving  the 
encampment,  the  visitor  is  expected  to  make  a  present  to  the 
Sheikh  of  a  good  round  sum  of  money.  The  Sheikh,  however, 
protests  violentiy,  declaring  that  he  cannot  think  of  receiving 
money  from  a  guest,  and  insists  on  restoring  it.     On  one  or  two 

•  Judg.  6  :  ii-2a. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE— HOSPITALITY.  8$ 

occasions,  we  took  our  entertainers  at  their  word,  and  received 
back  the  money;  but  the  good  man  always  rode  after  us  before  we 
had  got  far,  and  expressed  his  willingness  not  only  to  accept  the 
gift,  but  his  decided  disapprobation  of  the  smallness  of  it."  ^ 

This  throws  light  on  the  act  of  Gehazi  and  the  readiness  of 
Naaman  to  hand  him  the  present,  previously  refused  by  the 
prophet.^  When  Palmer  asked  for  a  drink  of  water,  it  could  not 
be  found  in  the  Arab  encampment  in  the  desert,  but  milk  was 
brought  to  him  instead  of  water.  Thus  Sisera  asked  Jael  for 
a  drink  of  water,  "And  she  opened  a  bottle  of  milk,  and  gave  him 
drink."  3 

111.  Presents,  Not  Pay.—].  L.  Stephens,  in  his  travels,  speaks 
also  of  the  hospitality  of  the  Arabs.  "I  had  read  beautiful 
descriptions  of  its  manifestation,"  and  had  the  notion  that 
"the  Bedouin  would  be  offended  by  an  offer  to  reward  his  hos- 
pitality." Not  wishing  to  make  a  blunder  in  so  delicate  a  ques- 
tion, he  adds,  "I  applied  to  my  guide  Toualeb  for  information. 
His  answer  was  explicit."  "  I  could  give  or  not  give  as  I  pleased 
but  that  if  I  did  not,  the  hospitable  host  (Sheikh)  would  vidsh 
his  lamb  alive  again! "  Stephens  made  a  gift  and  adds:  "from 
the  exceeding  satisfaction  vdth  which  that  estimable  person  re- 
ceived it,  I  am  very  sure  I  did  better  in  taking  Toualeb 's  knowl- 
edge for  my  guide  than  by  acting  upon  what  I  had  read  in 
books."  Again,  among  the  Bedouins  of  the  Arabian  desert,  he 
speaks  of  "the  great  friendship  they  had  conceived  for  him," 
quaintly  adding,  "the  friendship  was  not  for  what  I  was,  but 
for  what  I  had."  "They  welcomed  me  as  they  would  a  bag  of 
gold."*  Many  other  travelers  have  observed  similar  dark 
colors  in  Oriental  hospitality,  not  the  simple,  unselfish  entertain- 
ment that  springs  from  a  profound  sense  of  the  brotherhood  of 
the  human  race. 

112.  Hospitality  Rewarded. — Many  even  of  the  Scripture 
instances  might  be  open  to  such  suspicion  also,  for  did  they 
not  realize  a  reward?     Even  when  the  courtesy  is  based  upon 

»  Desert  of  Exodus,  pp.  403-406.  *  2  Kings  s  :  20-27-     ,   ^     ,  .     _  _     „ 

*  Judg.  4  :  10.  *  Travels  m  Egypt  and  Arabia,  Petra,  II,  30. 


86  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

love,  the  sacred  writers  hint  at  tlie  probability  of  recompense. 
Thus,  "Let  brotherly  love  continue"  is  followed  by,  "Be  not 
forgetful  to  entertain  strangers;  jor  thereby  some  have  enter- 
tained angels  unawares."  ^  Abraham,  Lot,  and  Gideon  were  not 
alone  in  receiving  strangers,  who  turned  out  to  be  angels.^ 
Laban  took  in  a  stranger,  and  found  a  servant  and  a  son-in-law.^ 
Rahab  received  two  strange  men,  and  her  life  was  saved  as  her 
reward.*  The  widow  of  Zarephath  shared  her  last  morsel 
in  time  of  famine  with  a  stranger,  and  she  and  her  son 
were  kept  from  starving  to  death  thereby.^  The  woman  of 
Shunem  entertained  a  chance  stranger,  who  turned  out  also  to 
be  a  prophet,  and  she  had  a  rich  recompense.^  These  did  it  not 
for  the  reward,  but  they  received  a  recompense. 

In  view  of  instances  like  these,  the  Apostle  Paul  urged  the 
grace  on  Roman  Christians,  "given  to  hospitality. " '  "  Given  " 
represents  a  strong  Greek  term;  strictly  "pursuing"  the  grace, 
as  though  it  were  in  danger  of  escaping  from  them.  In  old 
times  the  prophet  seems  also  to  have  made  it  a  test  of  godly 
character.*  In  New  Testament  times  the  recompense  came 
unexpectedly.  Zaccheus  entertained  the  despised  Galilean 
Teacher,  and  salvation  came  to  his  house.^  Publius,  a  bar- 
barian of  Malta,  entertained  a  strange  prisoner  for  "three  days 
courteously, "  and  had  his  father  restored  to  health  by  his  guest, 
the  prisoner  Paul.*" 

113.  Hospitality  Unrewarded. — On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
noble  instances  of  Oriental  hospitality  among  the  rude  and 
uncultured  Bedouins  of  the  far  East,  who  would  scorn  the  offer 
of  a  reward  therefor.  Thus,  Ta vernier  says,  "On  the  road 
to  Bagdad,  we  met  with  a  comely  old  man,  who  came  up  to 
me,  and  taking  my  horse  by  the  bridle,  said,  "Friend,  come, 
wash  thy  feet,  and  eat  bread  at  my  house.  Thou  art  a  stranger, 
since  I  have  met  thee  on  the  road,  never  refuse  me  the  favor  I 
desire  of  thee."  He  feasted  us  in  the  best  manner  he  could, 
"  giving  us  barley  for  our  horses,  killed  a  lamb  and  some  hens." 

•  Heb.  13  :  I,  a.  «  Gen.  18  :  2,  lo-io  :  i.  5;  Judg.  5. 

»  Gen.  29-31-        *  Josh.  6  :  22,  23.  *  1  Kings  17  :  8-24.        '  2  Kinps  4  :  8-37- 

'  Rom.  IS  :  13.      *  1  Kings  17  :  13-  '  Luke  19  :  6,  9.  *"  Acts  28  :  7,  8. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE — HOSPITALITY.  87 

The  traveler  was  impressed  with  this  invitation,  so  like  many 
examples  in  Scripture.  Another  young  Oriental  riding  with 
two  servants  greeted  the  same  traveler,  and  wanted  to  carry  him 
to  a  friend's  house  for  entertainment,  "but,  seeing  we  were 
resolved  to  keep  our  way, "  adds  Tavernier,  "he  would  give 
me  his  pipe,  notwithstanding  all  the  excuses  I  could  make, 
and  though  I  told  him  I  never  took  tobacco,  I  was  constrained 
to  accept  it."  ^ 

114.  Public  Guest-room. — The  American  explorer,  Robin- 
son, also  out  of  numerous  instances  during  his  researches  in 
Palestine  relates:  "In  every  village  there  is  a  public  room,  .  .  . 
Menzil  or  Medafeh — guest-room.  The  guest  lodges  in  the 
Menzil,  and  his  food  is  supplied  by  the  families  to  whose  circle 
it  belongs.  The  guest  gives  nothing  as  a  remuneration  when 
he  leaves.  To  offer  money  would  be  taken  as  an  insult,  and 
to  receive  it  would  be  a  great  disgrace."  Robinson  adds, 
"Such  is  universally  the  manner  of  entertainment  in  the  vil- 
lages," prevailing  about  Hebron  and  other  parts  of  Syria  two 
generations  ago,  before  the  natives  had  come  so  fully  in  contact 
with  representatives  of  Western  civilization.^ 

115.  Pay  Resented. — Dr.  Hilprecht  had  an  illustration  of  this 
primitive  hospitality  in  the  Lebanon  region.  After  entertain- 
ment over  night  he  arranged  to  have  his  muleteer  hand  the  host 
— a  Sheikh — a  silver  coin.  This  was  indignantly  refused. 
The  excited  Sheikh,  flinging  the  coin  upon  the  ground,  ex- 
claimed, "Am  I  a  dog?  Do  they  dare  to  give  the  Sheikh  of 
Zeta  money  in  return  for  hospitality?"  No  apologies  of  Dr. 
Hilprecht  for  the  mistake  of  his  servant  could  remove  the  insult 
in  the  mind  of  the  host,  and  the  guests  hastened  departiire,  for 
their  own  safety,  from  the  offended  Arab.^ 

Thus,  these  illustrate  the  Old  Testament  precepts,  and 
throw  light  on  the  basis  of  hospit^ility  as  practiced  by  Orientals; 
"If  a  stranger  sojourn  with  thee  in  your  land,  ye  shall  not  vex 
him."     "The  stranger  .  .  .  shall  be  unto  you  as  one  bom 

•  Travels,  p.  iii.       _  'See  Rf searches.  II,  19. 

•  I'rumbull,  Studies  in  Oriental  Lije,  p.  90. 


88  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

among  you,  and  thou  shalt  love  him  as  thyself."  "For  the 
Lord  .  .  .  loveth  the  stranger,  in  giving  him  food  and  raiment. 
Love  ye  therefore  the  stranger."  ' 

ii6.  Questions. — In  further  illustration  of  Scripture  inci- 
dents, telling  of  questions  asked,  Dr.  Merrill  speaks  of  the 
curiosity  of  the  desert  people,  the  Bedouin.  "Wherever  you 
meet  an  Arab,"  says  Merrill,  "you  will  find  him,  as  a  rule,  full 
of  questions."  His  first  inquiry  will  be,  "  Where  is  your  face  ?  " 
a  Semitic  idiom  for  "  Where  are  you  bound  ?  "  If  you  meet  him 
on  the  road  he  will  vdsh  you  to  stop  until  he  has  asked  where  you 
come  from,  why  you  came  from  that  place,  where  you  are  going, 
why  you  are  going  there,  of  what  nation  you  are,  and  other 
questions  about  your  gun  and  horse,  until  you  are  thoroughly 
tired,  and  spur  on  your  horse  to  escape  his  volley  of  interroga- 
tions." 2 

Pharaoh  asked  Jacob,  "How  old  art  thou?"  and  his  sons 
were  asked,  "What  is  your  occupation?"'  Dr.  Merrill  also 
commends  Bedouin  generosity:  "As  a  rule,  they  are  really 
very  liberal,  according  to  their  means,  in  presents  they  make  to 
friends.  But  they  are  too  human  not  to  expect  some  reward. 
Where  large  gifts  are  offered  to  a  foreigner,  it  is  expected  that  he 
will  immediately,  or  at  some  future  time,  make  a  generous  gift 
in  return." 

117.  Treatment  of  Guests. — The  acts  of  hospitality  vary 
widely  among  different  tribes  and  peoples  of  the  East,  yet  have 
some  broad  features  in  common.  Thus,  after  the  salutations, 
gestures  of  joy,  or  greeting  ^vith  kisses,  common  among  Arabs  in 
Egypt,  Arabia,  Syria,  and  eastward,  the  guest  is  invited  into 
the  dwelling,  and  water  offered  to  wash  his  feet.  Even  where 
sandals  are  not  worn  by  the  guest  this  is  done.  Robinson  in 
1838  had  his  host  at  Ramleh  propose  that  a  servant  wash  his 
feet,  and  adds,  "This  took  me  by  surprise,  for  I  was  not  aware 
that  the  custom  still  existed  here."  The  Nubian  slave  poured 
water  upon  his  feet  over  a  shallow  copper  basin,  rubbing  the 
feet  with  her  hands  and  wiping  them  with  a  napkin,  affording 

«  Lev.  19  :  34;  Deut.  10  :  17-19.         «  East  of  Jordan,  p.  499.  '  Gen.  47  :  3,  8. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE — HOSPITALITY.  89 

him  Scriptural  illustration  of  the  custom.^  Jowett  eariier  in 
the  last  century  had  a  like  experience  when  entertained  in  Mt. 
Lebanon.  "Before  supper,  the  master  of  the  house  directed 
his  servant  to  bring  in  a  large  brass  pan,  full  of  warm  water,  in 
which  for  the  iirst  time,  he  illustrated  the  ancient  custom  of 
washing  the  feet  of  strangers."  ^  Henry  Martyn  had  a  like 
treatment  in  his  journeys  in  the  East  as  did  also  the  author  of  a 
"Mission  to  the  Jews,"  and  Dr.  H.  Malcolm  in  Burmah  was 
thus  reminded  of  John  13  :  10. 

118.  Anointing  Guests. — Another  act  of  hospitality  was 
anointing  the  guest  with  perfume  or  oil.  Ta vernier  states  that 
he  made  Arabs  presents  of  olive  oil.  Soon  as  an  Arab  received 
it,  he  lifted  his  turban,  anointed  his  head,  face,  and  beard,  and 
then  lifting  his  eyes  to  heaven,  devoutly  exclaimed,  "Thank 
God!"  Burder  tells  of  an  Oriental  traveler,  the  guest  of  a  rich 
man  in  India,  where  the  master  of  the  house  poured  over  the 
traveler's  hands  and  arms  a  delightful  odoriferous  perfume,  put 
a  golden  cup  in  his  hand,  and  filled  it  with  wine  to  overflowing, 
reminding  him  of  the  Psalmist's  words,  "Thou  anointest  my 
head  with  oil,  my  cup  runneth  over."  ^  Bruce  in  his  travels  was 
entertained  by  an  Eastern  dignitary  and  adds,  "  Our  coffee  being 
done,  I  rose  to  take  my  leave,  and  was  presently  wet  to  the  skin 
by  deluges  of  orange-flower  water."  And  Niebuhr,  the 
traveler,  narrates  a  similar  experience  at  a  merchant's  house 
in  Rosetta,  the  servant  throwing  the  perfumed  water  over  his 
face  and  clothes. 

119.  Bible  Instances. — A  common  order  of  entertaining  a 
guest  is  set  forth  in  the  narrative  of  Jesus  dining  with  a  Phari- 
see. "I  entered  into  thine  house,  thou  gavest  me  no  water 
for  my  feet:  but  she  hath  washed  my  feet  with  tears,  and  wiped 
them  with  the  hairs  of  her  head.  Thou  gavest  me  no  kiss:  but 
this  woman  since  the  time  I  came  in  hath  not  ceased  to  kiss 
my  feet.  My  head  with  oil  thou  didst  not  anoint :  but  this  woman 
hath  anointed  my  feet  with  ointment."  *  And  this  w^s  the 
occasion  when  our  Lord  said,  her  sins  were  forgiven  her.     She 

•  Rtttarchts,  II,  ajQ.  *  In  Syria,  p.  6p.  '  Ps.  23.         *  Luke  7  :  44-46. 


90  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

had  a  reward;  again  the  promise  was  fulfilled,  "He  that  receiveth 
a  prophet  in  the  name  of  a  prophet  shall  receive  a  prophet's 
reward."  ^  Rawlinson  describes  a  costly  ointment  prepared  by 
the  rude  Parthians  composed  of  cinnamon,  spikenard,  myrrh, 
cassia,  gum-styrax,  saffron,  cardamom,  wine,  honey,  and  sixteen 
other  ingredients,  and  that  they  adopted  it  from  the  old  Persians 
who  also  had  an  ointment  of  palm-wine,  saffron,  and  the  fat  of 
lions,  with  Lelianthus,  which  was  believed  to  increase  the 
beauty  of  the  complexion.^ 

1 20.  Proverbs  on  Hospitality. — So  it  became  a  proverb, 
"  Ointment  and  perfume  rejoice  the  heart."  ^  And  the  preacher 
reckoned  among  the  comforts  of  this  life,  ointment  for  the 
head.  * 

It  was  a  custom  in  ancient  Egypt,  to  treat  guests  by  sprink- 
ling precious  ointment  or  oil  on  their  heads,  as  we  know  from 
representations  of  the  act  pictured  on  their  monuments.  It 
was  part  of  the  ceremony  in  crowning  a  king,^  and  at  the  instal- 
lation of  the  high  priest,^  as  well  as  a  part  of  courtesy  and  hos- 
pitality to  vistors.  Anointing  the  face  (with  the  oil  of  gladness) 
was  a  sign  of  joy,  and  the  neglect  of  it  a  sign  of  m.ourning.' 

121.  Lodges. — There  is  another  significant  expression  of  the 
Oriental  idea  of  hospitality.  It  is  found  in  the  Eastern  cara- 
vansary, khan,  or  inn,  and  in  the  "guestroom  "  called  the  "Men- 
zil"  or  "Medafeh."  There  are  three  or  four  grades  of  these 
public  guest  rooms  or  lodges.  An  Eastern  inn  is  entirely  differ- 
ent from  a  hotel  in  our  country.  Usually  it  is  without  furniture, 
landlord  or  food,  for  man  or  beast.  The  traveler  is  provided 
with  shelter  only.  He  must  carry  his  own  bedding,  provisions, 
and  cooking  utensils.  The  caravansary  is  a  large  building  in 
the  city,  and  sometimes  a  place  for  shelter  for  travelers  in  the 
desert.  The  khan  is  a  similar  building  in  a  village  or  town,  while 
the  Menzil  is  a  dwelling,  or  more  often  a  room,  set  aside  for 

'  Matt  10  :  4T. 

^Ancient  Monarchies,  III,  212.  Compare  Ex.  30  :  2.^-25;  a  Kings  20  :  13;  Ps.  133  :  a; 
Ecd.  7  :  I  with  John  12  :  3,  5;  Mark  14  :  3,  5;  Matt.  26  :  '7-9  and  Sol.  Song  i  :  3;  4  :  10; 
is.  57  :  9;  Rev.  18  :  13. 

*  Prov.  27:9.  *  Fed.  9  :  8;  cotriDsre  Ps.  92  :  10.         *  2  Kings  11  :  la. 

•  Ps.  133  :  2;  Lev.  6  :  20.  '  Ps.  104  :  15;  Heb.  i  :  9;  2  Sara.  14  :  2;  Dan.  10  :  3. 


SOCIAL   INTERCOURSE— HOSPITALITY.  pi 

guests  and  travelers.  The  better  class  of  caravansaries  are 
striking  objects  to  the  traveler,  looking  not  unlike  some  great 
palace,  or  fortress,  or  castle.  An  inn  with  a  keeper  is  alluded 
to  in  the  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan.^ 

122.  Khan,  Inn. — Buckingham,  in  his  Arabian  travels  years 
ago,  says,  "Some  of  the  finest  buildings  in  Damascus  are  the 
khans  or  caravansaries,  appropriated  to  the  reception  of  goods 
brought  in  caravans  from  various  quarters  .  .  .  one  consisted 
of  a  spacious  court,  the  entrance  to  which,  from  the  street,  was 
by  a  superb  gateway  with  pointed  arch,  vaulted,  and  highly 
ornamented  with  sculpture.  The  court  was  paved  throughout 
with  broad  flat  stones,  smoothly  polished,  and  admirably 
joined  together;  and  in  the  center  of  this  stood  a  large  fountain, 
sending  forth  cooling  and  agreeable  streams;  the  whole  being 
crowned  with  a  cluster  of  lofty  domes.  The  masonry  of  this 
pile  was  formed  of  alternate  layers  of  black  and  white  stone  .  .  . 
and  the  ornaments  were  profusely  rich." 

Another  traveler,  about  a  centur>'  ago,  was  conducted  to  an 
empty  room  in  a  khan.  He  adds,  "The  khan  was  of  large 
dimensions,  covering  apparently  an  acre  of  ground,  with  high 
buildings  all  around.  The  ground  floor  was  occupied  with 
horses  and  carriages  of  all  kinds.  The  second  floor  was  devoted 
to  passing  travelers,  and  the  third  to  those  who  were  to  stay 
above  six  months.  The  second  floor  had  a  wide  promenade  all 
around,  and  on  it  were  gathered  groups  from  many  different 
countries." 

123.  Menzil. — In  the  Menzil,  food  is  usually  supplied  by  the 
families  to  whose  circle  it  belongs,  as  before  stated.  At  a 
Menzil,  if  the  guest  is  a  dignitary,  or  person  of  position,  a  sheep, 
or  a  goat,  a  lamb  or  a  kid  may  be  killed  and  served.  If  the 
guest  is  a  common  traveler  or  a  muleteer,  he  is  fed  with  rice,  or 
whatever  may  be  the  ordinary  food  of  the  people  themselves. 

Dr.  H.  C.  Fish  describes  an  ordinary  khan  or  inn,  where  his 
party  lunched,  between  Ramleh  and  Jerusalem.  "The  build- 
ing was  in  a  state  of  utter  dilapidation.     It  stood  by  the  road 

>  Luke  10  :  25-37- 


92  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

side,  is  built  of  stone,  and  covers  quite  an  area.  It  has  a  ground 
floor,  and  a  second  flat,  reached  by  stairs  on  the  outside. 
On  the  upper  floor,"  he  adds,  "travelers  who  have  the  means, 
take  their  quarters,  paying  a  pittance  for  the  use  of  the  furniture 
there,  which  consists  of  a  few  rickety  chairs  and  tables,  and  two 
or  three  verminous  cots,  dignified  with  the  name  of  beds. 
[Chairs,  tables,  etc.,  are  not  used  and  not  seen  among  Orientals, 
though  they  were  not  unknov/n  in  ancient  Egypt.]  The  poor 
traveler  stays  dowii  stairs,  in  fact  most  khans  (in  Palestine)  have 
but  one  story.  The  ground  is  the  floor,  except  in  the  little 
arched  recesses  let  into  the  sides  of  the  walls,  a  foot  or  two 
above  ground,  v/hich  are  perhaps  cemented.  In  these  small 
recesses  (without  doors  to  them,  and  some  five  or  ten  feet 
square)  the  travelers  sleep,  their  animals  being  close  by. 
It  is  common  to  see  'mangers'  made  of  pebbles  and  mortar, 
in  the  shape  of  a  box  or  kneading  trough,  fastened  against  the 
wall,  or  lying  around  loose."  The  "crib"  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  the  "manger"  of  the  New,  were  doubtless  like  these 
mangers.^ 

124.  Fed  by  Strangers. — Of  the  hospitality  provided  in 
the  common  khan,  and  Menzil,  Fellows  gives  us  this  picture: 
"I  was  beginning  to  make  my  meal  upon  the  food  we  had  with 
us,  when  in  came  nine  people,  each  bearing  a  dish.  A  large 
tray  was  rested  on  the  rim  of  a  corn-sieve  placed  on  the  ground, 
in  the  center  of  which  was  placed  a  tureen  of  soup,  with  pieces 
of  bread  around  it.  The  stranger,  my  servant,  and  a  person 
who  seemed  to  be  the  head  man  of  the  village,  sat  around  the 
tray,  dipping  their  wooden  spoons  or  fingers  into  each  dish  as 
it  was  placed  in  succession  before  them.  Of  the  nine  dishes, 
I  observed  three  were  soups.  I  asked  why  this  was,  and  who 
was  to  pay  for  the  repast.  I  was  informed  it  was  the  custom 
of  the  people,  strictly  enjoined  by  their  religion,  that,  as  soon 
as  a  stranger  appears,  each  peasant  should  bring  his  dish,  he 
himself  remaining  to  partake  of  it  after  the  stranger — a  sort  of 

•  Job.  39  :  9;  Proverbs  14  :  4;  "the  ass  his  master's  crib,"   Isaiah   1  : y,   Luke  2  :  7, 

13,   16. 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE — HOSPITALITY.  93 

picnic,  of  which  tlie  stranger  partakes  without  contributing. 
The  hospitality  extends  to  everthing  he  requires;  his  horse  is 
fed,  and  wood  is  brought  for  his  fire,  each  inhabitant  feeUng 
honored  by  offering  something.  This  custom  accounts  for  the 
frequent  recurrence  of  the  same  dish,  as  no  one  knows  what 
his  neighbor  will  contribute.  Toward  a  Turkish  guest  this 
practice  is  perfectly  disinterested,  but  from  a  European  they 
may  have  possibly  been  led  to  expect  some  kind  of  return, 
although  to  offer  payment  would  be  an  insult.  All  the  native 
contributors  afterward  sat  down  and  ate  in  another  part  of  the 
room." 

125.  Not  Eai  Alone. — Oriental  etiquette  invites  others  to 
partake  of  food.  So  Job  protests  that  he  had  not  "eaten  my 
morsel  myself  alone."  *  Shaw,  in  his  travels,  gives  an  instance 
in  point  while  in  Arabia:  "No  sooner  v/as  our  food  prepared, 
whether  it  was  potted  iiesh  boiled  with  rice,  a  lentil  soup  or  un- 
leavened cakes,  served  up  with  oil  or  honey,  than  one  of  the 
Arabs,  having  placed  himself  on  the  highest  spot  of  ground  in 
the  neighborhood,  calls  out  thrice,  with  a  loud  voice,  to  the  sons 
of  the  faithful,  to  come  and  partake  of  it;  though  none  of  them 
were  in  view,  nor  perhaps  within  a  hundred  miles  of  us." 

126.  Token  of  Friendship. — Then,  too,  we  must  bear  in  mind 
that  hospitality  meant  far  more  to  the  Oriental  than  brief  enter- 
tainment. It  was  a  token  of  friendship,  of  protection,  and  a 
pledge  to  defend  the  guest  from  any  harm,  even  at  the  sacrifice 
of  his  life.  This  pledge  seems  to  rest  upon  the  idea  of  the 
brotherhood  of  man,  in  part,  but  more  fully  upon  the  ancient 
Oriental  conviction  that  all  men  are  "guests  of  God,"  dwelling 
in  a  vast  sky  covered  tent,  where  God  is  the  host.  William 
Ewing,  resident  among  the  dwellers  of  Lebanon,  and  familiar 
with  those  of  the  Hauran,  found  this  idea  in  the  minds  of  the 
people  in  those  lonely  places.  To  them  the  traveler  is  "the 
guest  of  God, "  and  if  they  neglect  to  care  for  him  out  of  what 
God  has  given  them,  it  shall  not  be  well  for  them. 

•Job.  31  :  17. 


XIV. 


EATING   AND   MEALS, 

127.  Vegetarians. — The  Orientals  are  largely  vegetarians, 
rather  than  flesh  eaters.  Their  foods  are  chiefly  fruits,  vege- 
tables, grains,  and  other  cereals.  Rice  is  the  most  common 
article  of  diet  in  the  far  East.  There  are  some  who  hold  that 
primitive  man  was  a  vegetarian,  supporting  their  claim  on 
passages  in  Genesis.^  It  was  common  to  eat  the  green  kernels 
of  grain  without  cooking  or  baking.  This  custom  has  pre- 
vailed for  thousands  of  years.  Thus,  Robinson  on  the  road 
from  Hebron  to  Carmel  (in  1838),  when  the  wheat  was  ripening, 
says,  "We  had  here  a  beautiful  illustration  of  Scripture.  Our 
Arabs  were  an  hungered,  and  going  into  the  fields,  they  plucked 
tlie  ears  of  com  (grain)  and  did  eat,  rubbing  them  in  their  hands. 
On  being  questioned  they  said  this  was  an  old  custom,  and  no 
one  would  speak  against  it;  they  were  supposed  to  be  hungry, 
and  it  was  allowed.  We  saw  this  afterward  in  repeated  in- 
stances." ^ 

128.  Eating  Raw  Grain. — This  practice  is  as  old  as  the 
ancient  Israelites.  "When  thou  comest  into  the  standing  com 
of  thy  neighbour,  then  thou  mayest  pluck  the  ears  with  thine 
hand  " ;  •''  but  they  were  required  to  bring  an  offering  at  the  same 
time.  "  Ye  shall  eat  neither  bread,  nor  parched  com,  nor  green 
ears,  until  the  selfsame  day  that  ye  have  brought  an  oflfering 
unto  your  God."*  The  disciples  with  our  Lord  were  "going 
on  the  sabbath  day  through  the  grainfields;  and  his  disciples 
began,  as  they  went,  to  pluck  the  ears."  ^  Green  kernels 
of  grain  have  been  used  as  food  for  many  centuries  in  the 
Orient.®    Sometimes  the  grain  was  parched  or  roasted  and 

'  Gen.  2  :  16  nnd  3  :  2,  6.        2  Kesearrhes,  vol.  I,  492,  493.        •  Deut.  2,-;  :  35. 

*  Lev.  23  :  14.  •  Mark  2  :  23.  *  See  2  Kings  4  :  42- 

94 


Churning  in  Goatskin,  Beerotu.  I'.  96 

{^Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  New  York.) 


EATING    AND   MEALS.  95 

eaten.  Thus  Boaz  treated  Ruth  to  parched  grain/  and 
Abigail  sent  David  similar  food.- 

Lane  saw  a  similar  practice  in  Egypt,  where  he  found  the 
diet  of  the  common  people  was  almost  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Israelites,  three  thousand  years  before.  Of  modem  Egyptians 
he  says,  "Their  food  chiefly  consists  of  bread  made  of  millet, 
(or  barley),  milk,  new  cheese,  eggs,  small  salted  fish,  cucumbers, 
and  melons  and  gourds  of  a  great  variety  of  kinds,  onions,  and 
leeks,  beans,  chick-peas,  lupins,  the  fruit  of  the  black  egg-plant, 
lentils,  and  dates.  Most  of  the  vegetables  they  eat  in  a  crude 
(raw)  state."  ^  This  closely  resembles  the  Ust  of  foods,  for 
which  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  longed.  "We  remember  the 
fish,  which  we  did  eat  in  Egypt  freely,  the  cucumbers,  and  the 
melons,  and  the  leeks,  and  the  onions,  and  the  garlick."  * 

129.  Milk. — Milk  is  also  an  extensive  article  of  diet  among 
Orientals,  and  has  been  so  from  the  earliest  historic  times. 
Andrew  A.  Bonar  notes  the  use  of  milk  among  Orientals:  "Be- 
fore leaving  the  poor  villagers,  we  partook  of  the  first  fruits  of 
the  land  in  the  shape  of  fine  ripe  apricots,  and  drank  a  littie  of  a 
kind  of  sour  milk,  which  is  very  cooling  and  pleasant  when  well 
prepared."  It  was  this  lehen  or  sour  milk  that  Jael  offered  to 
Sisera;  "She  brought  him  butter  [thick  milk]  in  a  lordly  dish."  ° 
The  original  word  is  of  the  same  stem  as  that  now  used  by  Arabs 
to  describe  a  form  of  milk.  It  is  said  that  it  is  made  by  putting 
milk  into  an  earthen  jar,  and  letting  it  stand  for  a  day.  The 
taste  is  not  unlike  that  of  butter-milk;  the  Arabs  say,  "It  makes 
a  sick  man  well."  Robinson  was  also  treated  to  a  similar  diet 
in  camp:  "A  large  bowl  of  lehen  (sour  milk)  was  already  pre- 
pared for  our  breakfast;  but  as  we  were  neither  hungry  nor 
thirsty,  we  left  it  to  our  attendants,  by  whom  it  was  greedily 
devoured."  Although  butter  made  from  churning  cream  is 
not  unknown  to  Orientals,  probably  the  "butter"  often  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament  is  this  lehen,  for  in  another  passage, 
the  drink  offered  to  Sisera  is  called  "milk."  '    So,  also,  "butter 

'Ruth  a  :  14.  '  t  Sam.  25  :  18.  *  Modern  Ep.yplians,  I.,  243. 

'Num.  II  :  5.  'Jud^.  5  :  25.  •  Judg.  4  :  19. 


96  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

of  Idne,  and  milk  of  sheep  "  may  designate  a  similar  prepara- 
tion.^ 

130.  Butter. — Buckingham  tells  of  the  way  he  saw  Arab 
tribes  make  butter.  "The  milk  is  placed  in  a  goat's  skin,which 
is  filled  as  full  as  possible,  and  then  tied  to  the  mouth ;  after  which 
it  is  rolled  or  shaken  on  the  ground,  by  a  woman  who  sits 
before  it,  this  operation  continuing  for  several  hours  on  each 
skin,  till  butter  is  formed  from  the  milk,  when  the  bag  or  skin 
is  untied,  and  the  two  parts  separated  from  each  other." 
Burckhardt  tells  how  the  Bedouins,  who  are  extremely  fond  of 
butter,  make  it  from  the  milk  of  goats  or  sheep.  They  put  the 
milk  into  a  large  pan,  over  a  slow  fire,  adding  a  little  sour  milk. 
The  milk  separates  and  is  then  put  into  the  goat's  skin,  which  is 
tied  to  one  of  the  tent  poles  and  for  one  or  two  hours  constantly 
moved  backward  and  forward.  The  mass  coagulates,  has  the 
water  squeezed  out,  and  the  so-called  "butter"  is  put  into 
another  skin.  Sometimes  they  place  that  over  the  fire  again, 
throw  in  a  handful  of  dried  wheat,  boil  and  skim  and  drain 
through  a  bag  of  camels'  hair.  The  thick  substance  is  then  dried 
in  the  sun,  or  used  as  semen,  a  kind  of  hard  butter.  There  are 
many  allusions  in  Scripture  to  this  kind  of  "butter,"  thus, 
"The  churning  of  milk  bringeth  forth  butter."  ^  As  a  picture 
of  prosperity,  the  prophet  declares  that  a  man  for  "the  abun- 
dance of  milk  that  they  shall  give,  he  shall  eat  butter,"  and  in  the 
glory  of  the  New  Kingdom  it  is  said,  "Butter  and  honey  shall 
he  eat." '  This  product  of  milk  is  also  sometimes  called 
"cheese."  Telling  of  the  afflictions  which  tested  him.  Job 
said,  "  Hast  thou  not  .  .  .  curdled  me  like  cheese  ? "  *  And 
David  was  sent  by  his  father  to  carry  "ten  cheeses"  to  the 
captain  of  the  army  where  his  brothers  were  soldiers.^ 

131,  Bread. — It  will  give  us  some  idea  of  the  large  place 
peculiar  forms  of  food,  and  the  taking  of  it,  held  in  Oriental 
life,  to  know  that  "eat"  or  "eating"  occurs  upward  of  eight 
hundred  times  in  the   Scriptures,   and  that  "bread"  occurs 

•  Deut  32  :  14;  Job  20  :  17  and  29  :  6.         '  Proverbs  .,0  :  33.  '  Isai;>.h  7  :  15,  22. 

*  Job.  10  :  10.  '  I  Sam.  17  :  18;  see  2  Sam.  17  :  29k 


EATING   AND   MEALS.  97 

about  four  hundred  times,  and  "meat"  (meaning  food  in  gen- 
eral) about  two  hundred  times,  and  "corn,"  referring  to  all 
kinds  of  small  grain,  about  a  hundred  times. 

Bread  is  the  staple  diet  in  an  Oriental  meal.  Prof.  Post  found 
that  "with  the  bread  a  man  laps  up  his  soup,  or  grasps  and 
enfolds  his  meat,  or  dips  up  his  honey.  In  the  loaf  of  bread  are 
wrapped  the  olives  and  cheese,  and  morsels  of  figs  or  dates  or 
other  food."  "It  constitutes  half  of  a  dinner,  and  nearly  all  of 
breakfast  and  lunch  "  in  the  East.  The  grain  or  substance  from 
which  bread  can  be  made  usually  indicates  the  class  to  which 
the  family  belongs.  Wheat  is  used  only  by  the  better  class  of 
peasants.  A  family  that  has  attained  to  the  wheat-bread  level 
is  well  up  in  the  scale  of  comfort.  Bread  from  barley  or  millet 
is  used  by  the  poorer  class.  Barley  loaves  or  bread  is  often 
noted  in  Scripture;  thus  "a  cake  of  barley  bread  tumbled  into 
the  host  of  Midian  "  as  in  the  frightened  dream  of  a  soldier.* 
The  lad  had  "five  barley  loaves,"  which  Jesus  used  to  feed  the 
5000  men  in  the  desert.^ 

132.  Flour  Unbolted. — The  crushed  grain  or  flour  is  unbolted, 
the  coarser  bran  is  sifted  out  by  a  coarse  hair-cloth  sieve,  made 
by  gypsies.  The  grain  is  ground  in  a  mortar,  or  in  a  stone  hand- 
mill;  mixed  into  dough,  rolled  out  into  circular  thin  loaves,  like 
cakes,  and  baked  on  a  hot  stone,  or  in  a  clay  oven.  The  loaves 
are  about  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  one-third  to  one-half 
an  inch  thick.  Sometimes  a  few  seeds  are  sprinkled  over  the 
loaf.  The  "fitches"  mentioned  in  Isaiah  28  :  27,  a  species 
of  black  cummin,  is  a  coarse  seed  resembling  our  fennel. 
When  first  baked  the  loaf,  or  cake,  puffs  up,  and  becomes  a 
flattened  spheroid  filled  with  air.  The  top  and  bottom  crusts  are 
crisp  and  quite  thin.  The  loaves  collapse  when  cold.  This 
flat,  thin  loaf,  rough  of  surface,  would  resemble  a  flat  stone. 
Hence  the  allusions  of  our  Lord,  to  giving  a  stone  for  bread. 
"If  his  son  shall  ask  him  for  a  loaf,  will  give  him  a  stone ?'"^ 

133.  Kamaj. — Another  form  of  bread  is  called  markook. 

•  Jud«.  7  :  13.  '  John  6  :  0. 

•  Matt.  7  :  9;  see  also  Matt.  4  :  3;  Luke  4:3;  11  :  11. 


98  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

This  is  made  like  the  former  loaf,  which  is  called  kamaj,  but  is 
larger,  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  about  half 
the  thickness.  This  is  baked  in  a  hollow  barrel-like  domestic 
oven,  called  tannoor.  The  oven  is  built  of  stone  and  plastered 
inside  with  clay;  has  a  hole  at  the  bottom  for  the  draught, 
and  is  open  at  the  top  for  putting  in  and  taking  out  the  bread. 
When  the  loaf  or  dough  is  wet  it  sticks  to  the  sides  of  the  oven, 
but  when  it  begins  to  dry  and  brown  it  loosens,  and  sometimes 
falls  into  the  fire.  The  women  acquire  great  skill  in  twirling 
the  loaves  off  the  side  of  the  oven  and  out  of  its  mouth  just  as 
they  are  nicely  done,  rarely  burning  their  hands  and  arms. 
Again,  the  bread  may  be  baked  upon  a  convex  iron  plate, 
under  which  a  fire  is  kindled,  producing  a  dry  and  inferior 
sort  of  bread. 

134.  Niitriiion. — As  illustrating  the  importance  of  bread  as 
an  article  of  diet,  Burckhardt  declares  that  his  native  helpers 
walked  five  hours  a  day,  and  were  sustained  on  a  piece  of  dry, 
black  bread,  about  one  and  a  half  pounds'  weight,  which  was 
their  only  food  for  the  twenty-four  hours  of  each  day.^  Our 
Lord  declared  that  man  should  not  live  by  bread  alone,  as  it 
seems  many  Orientals  think  to  do.^  On  coarse  bread  loaves, 
resembling  stones,  Prof.  Palmer  humorously  says  of  the  bread 
he  saw  daily  doled  out  to  the  monks  of  St.  Catherine's  on  Mt. 
Sinai;  they  were  of  decidedly  stony  character.  "One  of  these 
loaves  I  brought  back  v/ith  me;  an  eminent  geologist  pro- 
nounced it  a  piece  of  metamorphic  rock,  containing  fragments 
of  quartz  embedded  in  amorphous  paste."  Palmer  adds, 
"No  decently  brought  up  ostrich  could  swallow  one  \\-ithout 
endangering  his  digestion  for  the  term  of  his  natural  life"  (p.  6i). 
This  well  illustrates  the  coarseness  of  the  crushed  grain,  and 
that  gravel  sometimes  remains  mixed  with  it  when  carelessly 
fanned  or  winnowed.  Compare  Luke  11:  11  with  Matt.  3:12, 
the  latter  showing  how  thoroughly  the  coming  Messiah  would 
use  the  "fan"  to  clean  his  grain. 

135.  Grain  Pits. — Joseph's  order  for  his  meal  was,  "set  on 

'  bee  Robinson,  Researches,  II,  ii8.  ^  jjiatt,  4  :  4;  Deut.  8  :  3;  Luke  4  :  4. 


EATING   AND  MEALS.  99 

bread,"  as  when  his  brethren  cast  him  into  a  pit,  "they  sat 
down  to  eat  bread."  And  Moses  was  invited  to  "eat  bread," 
for  in  each  case  that  was  the  chief  food  at  the  meal.^  Raised 
bread  is  now  made  by  "leaven"  or  a  form  of  yeast,  as  it  was 
in  olden  times.  And  unleavened  cakes  and  bread  made  with 
simple  flour  and  water  or  oil  are  still  widely  used  and  relished 
by  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  East,  and  in  the  desert  where 
Moses  and  the  Israelites  ate  their  "unleavened  cakes."^ 

136.  Cooking.— The  Orientals  are  fond  of  dishes  boiled, 
roasted,  or  fried,  but  baked  dishes  are  not  popular  with  the 
peasants  of  Palestine  now. 

The  natives  consider  the  lentil  a  nourishing  food,  made  into 
soup,  as  we  use  dried  peas.  In  Palestine  also  the  squash,  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  lettuce,  beet,  parsnip,  bean,  pea,  onion,  garlick, 
leek,  radish,  mallow,  and  egg-plant  are  common  articles  of 
diet.  Prof.  Grant  says  of  the  egg-plant,  there  are  so  many 
ways  of  preparing  it;  "Should  a  woman  say  to  her  husband 
during  the  egg-plant  season,  'I  know  not  what  to  provide  for 
dinner,'  he  has  a  sufficient  cause  for  divorcing  her."^ 

137.  " Mashee."— There  is  also  a  great  variety  of  prepara- 
tions of  food,  called  by  the  natives  mashsJiy  (or  tnashee),  mean- 
ing "stuffed."  A  dish  of  this  kind  is  made  of  cabbage,  the 
leaves  bemg  rolled,  and  each  leaf  stuffed  with  finely  chopped 
mutton,  suet,  and  grain;  either  rice  or  barley,  with  a  little 
celery  and  spice.  The  leaf  is  then  rolled  like  a  cigar,  and  a 
number  of  them  laid  in  a  ketde  for  boiling.  Grape  leaves  are 
also  used  in  a  similar  manner.  Another  dish  is  made  of  young 
marrows,  like  cucumbers,  stuffed  and  fried  in  hot  butter  in  a 
pan.  But  the  principal  stuffed  dish  is  made  with  egg-plant, 
served  with  leben  sauce  or  with  lemon  juice.  Caraway,  anise, 
thyme,  and  mint  are  used  in  seasoning,  as  well  as  salt.  The 
favorite  form  of  cooking  is  to  fry  in  fat  or  semen,  olive  oil,  or  an 
oil  made  from  simsim  seeds.  The  carob  pod  (Luke  15:16) 
is  eaten  raw,  or  if  green  may  be  cooked  with  milk.     It  is  said 

»  Gen.  37  :  25;  43  =  3i;  Ex.  2  :  20;  i  Sam.  28  :  22. 

«  Ex.  12  :  30;  Lev.  2  :  4;  7  :  12;  8  :  26;  Num.  6  :  19;  Josh.  5  :  ix. 

*  Peasantry,  p.  83. 


lOO  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

to  have  a  flavor  similar  to  that  of  sweetened  chocolate.  Locusts 
are  in  great  variety,  and  in  Palestine  they  are  not  an  uncommon 
article  of  diet;  they  are  eaten  fried  or  roasted.  Prof.  Grant 
tells  of  the  tenacity  to  life  of  these  insects.  "A  man  in  great 
haste  caught  a  locust,  and  holding  it  by  the  legs,  roasted  it 
over  a  fire,  not  v/aiting  long  before  he  put  it  in  his  mouth, 
but  fearing  it  would  bum  him,  he  delayed  shutting  his  teeth  on 
it,  and  when  the  grasp  of  his  fingers  loosed,  away  went  the 
locust,"  which  gave  rise  to  the  proverb,  "Better  at  escaping 
than  a  locust." 

13S.  Locusts. — The  diet  of  John  the  Baptist  was  locusts 
and  wild  honey .^  Fruits  were  also  freely  used,  and  are  abun- 
dant in  variety  and  quantity  in  Oriental  lands.  Grapes,  figs, 
apricots,  and  pomegranates  are  common  fruits.  These  fruits 
are  dried  and  used  freely  during  the  V'/inter  season.  Grapes 
are  mashed  and  pressed.  From  them  is  made  dibs,  a  thick 
pasty  substance  or  sometimes  thin  like  our  thick  molasses. 
Honey  is  also  prepared  and  kept  in  similar  form. 

139.  Wine. — The  Aloslems  in  the  East  do  not,  as  a  rule,  drink 
wine.  It  is  forbidden  them  by  their  religion,  but  some  of  them 
break  over.  Intoxication  is  gaining  ground,  even  among  the 
Moslems,  v/here  they  have  come  in  contact  with  Western 
civilization.  Rev.  Charles  A.  S.  Dwight  speaks  of  drinking 
as  greatly  on  the  increase  in  the  seaboard  towns  of  the  Levant. 
"A  vile  concoction,  the  basis  of  which  is  methylic  alcohol,  is 
consumed  in  large  quantities  under  the  name  of  raku."  A  re- 
cent resident  in  Palestine  tells  of  a  Moslem  girl  whose  brother 
had  fallen  under  the  habit,  and  she  aimed  forcibly  to  picture 
his  abject  dissipation  by  saying:  "Why,  my  brother  drinks 
like  a  Christian."  On  the  other  hand,  a  INIoslem  governor 
not  long  ago  invited  an  Englishman  to  dine,  with  the  apology 
that  his  religion  would  not  allow  him  to  offer  wine.  When 
informed  that  his  guest  was  an  abstainer,  the  governor  ex- 
claimed with  surprise  "And  he  is  a  Chistian!"  Prof.  Post 
says  of  Syria,  that  "  half  the  population,  the  Moslems,  are 

•  Matt.  3  :  4;  Mark  i  :  6. 


Orientals  Feasting,  Beeroth. 

(Copyright  by  Underwood  ib-  Underwood,  New  York.) 


V.  1 02 


Village  Oven. 

{,y ester  &■  Co.) 


r.  98 


EATING   AND   MEALS.  lOI 

total  abstainers  on  principle;  of  the  Christian  population,  more 
than  half  are  abstainers  in  practice.  Wine  is  seldom  seen  on 
the  table,  although  very  cheap,  and  of  excellent  quality.  Arack 
and  brandy,  with  the  addition  of  anise  oil,  is  used  by  few  of  the 
people." 

140.  Diet  and  Meals. — Oriental  meals  are  usually  quite 
simple,  not  as  frequent,  and  not  served  at  as  exact  hours  as 
with  us.  They  vary  also  in  character  and  in  the  variety  of 
food  served  in  different  lands  of  the  East. 

Coffee,  or  some  substitute,  comes  early  in  the  morning. 
The  first  meal  is  not  usually  taken  until  the  middle  of  the 
forenoon.  It  is  often  nothing  more  than  bread  and  coffee, 
or  bread  and  onions,  with  a  bit  of  fish  in  the  season.^  In 
ancient  times  the  Orientals  had  a  meal  near  noon.  Thus, 
Abraham  prepared  a  mid-day  meal  for  three  angels,  and 
Joseph  made  ready  a  meal  at  noon  for  his  brothers."  The 
reapers  of  Boaz  ate  about  mid-day  also.^  The  chief  meal  is  at 
evening.  Thus,  the  Passover  was  eaten  at  evening,*  or  between 
two  evenings,  being  the  Paschal  lamb  with  bitter  herbs.  But 
flesh  food  nov/  is  a  luxury  in  most  Oriental  lands,  and  is  used 
by  the  peasants  and  common  people  in  Syria  only  on  special 
occasions. 

141.  Wash  Before  Eating. — Before  eating  Orientals  take 
a  pitcher  or  ewer  of  water  and  a  clean  basin.^  One  pours 
water  on  his  hands,  held  over  the  basin,  to  wash  them.  Ori- 
entals would  think  it  untidy  and  disgraceful  to  pour  water 
into  the  basin,  and  wash  in  the  same  water  that  has  been 
fouled  by  the  dirt  already  washed  from  the  hands,  as  Europeans 
do.  The  basin  often  has  a  concave  cover,  perforated  with 
holes,  so  that  the  dirty  water  from  the  hands  runs  through 
out  of  sight.  The  same  water  never  touches  the  hands  a  second 
time. 

142.  Why  Wash.—li  is  needful  to  wash  the  hands  before 
and  after  a  meal,  for  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  are  unknown 

«  John  21  :  4-13.  2  Gen.  18  :  i;  43  :  16,  25.  'Ruth  2  :  14. 

*  Ex.  12:6.  '2  Kings  3  :  11. 


I02  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

to  native  Orientals.  Their  fingers  are  freely  used  for  serving, 
separating,  and  conveying  food  to  the  mouth.  So  it  is  said, 
"all  the  Jews  except  they  wash  their  hands  oft  [literally 
'washing  with  the  fist,'  showing  how  they  washed  their  hands] 
they  eat  not."  ^  Hence,  the  Pharisee  "marveled"  that  Jesus 
"had  not  first  washed  before  dinner"  [or  breakfast].^ 

143.  Dining  Furniture. — Chairs,  sofas,  and  high  tables  are  not 
found  in  native  Oriental  dwellings.  The  country  people  eat 
out  of  one  large  common  dish,  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  room, 
or  upon  a  raised  platform  at  the  side.  The  dish  is  put  either 
on  the  floor  or  on  a  low  round  table,  about  one  foot  high  and 
five  or  six  feet  in  diameter.  The  men  squat  around  this  low 
table  on  the  floor,  or  on  mats,  or  rugs,  curling  their  feet  under 
them.  It  is  not  polite  for  them  to  show  their  feet.  In  Moslem 
lands  the  women  never  eat  with  the  men. 

144.  Place  of  Honor. — The  place  of  honor  at  the  table  is  at 
the  right  hand  of  the  father  or  master  of  the  household.^  Should 
a  stranger  appear,  or  pass,  he  would  be  invited  to  eat.  An 
Oriental  household  aims  to  be  always  prepared  for  an  unex- 
pected guest.  It  was  always  a  disgrace  not  to  be  prepared. 
Hence  the  urgency  of  the  man  who  waked  his  neighbor  to  bor- 
row three  loaves  for  a  guest.^  Usually  grace  is  said  before 
and  after  the  meal.  Thus,  the  prophet  Samuel  declared  to 
Jesse,  "We  will  not  sit  down  till  he  [David,  the  youngest  son] 
come."  ^  If  a  seer  or  prophet  was  present,  the  people  waited 
for  him  to  bless  the  food.  So  the  maidens  told  Saul,  who 
was  inquiring  for  the  seer,  that  they  knew  he  was  in  the  city, 
"for  the  people  will  not  eat  until  he  come,  because  he  doth  bless 
the  sacrifice."  ®  Lane  found  that  in  Egypt  each  person  bares 
his  right  arm  to  the  elbow  by  tucking  up  the  hanging  end  of  his 
sleeve.  Before  he  begins  to  eat,  "each  one  says  after  the 
master  of  the  house,  'in  the  name  of  God'  or  'praise  Allah,' 
'God  be  praised.'" 

145.  Chief  Dish. — The  comm.on  dish  from  which  all  eat 

•  Mark  7  :  3;  Matt.  15:2.  *  Luke  11  :  38. 
'  See  Matt.  20  :  23;  25  :  34;  Arts  2  :  33;  Heb.  i  :  3. 

*  Luke  1 1  :  5-8.  '  I  Sam.  i6  :  n.  •  i  Sam.  9  :  13. 


EATING   AND   MEALS.  IO3 

is  in  the  center;  bread  in  round  thin  cakes  or  loaves  will  be 
laid  on  the  knee  of  each  person.  With  torn  bits  of  bread, 
formed  into  a  spoon,  each  dips  into  the  dish  filled  with  barley, 
lentil,  or  other  soup,  thickened  with  cracked  grain  or  flour,  in 
which  may  be  floating  balls  of  rice,  bits  of  chicken,  or  mutton, 
or,  more  often,  some  kind  of  fruit,  deftly  carries  food  to  the 
mouth  without  losing  a  drop,  and  devours  spoon  and  all  each 
time.  Bits  of  meat  are  torn  oft"  with  the  fingers.  The  bread 
takes  the  place  of  spoons,  and  with  it  they  scoop  up  sauces, 
soups,  gravies,  and  any  partially  liquid  dish  with  ease  if  not 
always  with  grace.  The  fingers  are  used  for  forks  and  knives 
also. 

146.  The  Guest. — The  mouthfuls  are  usually  large,  the  food 
thickly  garnished  with  rich  sauces,  and  plentifully  dripping 
with  fat.  If  an  unexpected  guest  comes  in,  the  master  of  the 
household  sweeps  his  long  fingers  into  the  common  dish,  to 
fish  out  some  dainty  morsel,  and,  putting  his  hand  on  the 
guest's  shoulder,  begs  him  to  open  his  mouth  wide,  and  take 
this  morsel  for  his  sake,  or  to  "praise  God."  He  begs  him  not 
to  leave  his  tent  or  dwelling  hungry,  and  this  he  may  repeat 
many  times  over.  Sometimes  it  may  be,  a  covenant  of  friend- 
ship is  proposed  to  be  formed  with  the  chance  stranger.  Then 
the  master  selects  an  enormous  morsel,  and  while  the  stranger 
is  wrestling  with  this,  another  chunk  is  quickly  fished  out,  and 
thrust  into  the  open  mouth  after  the  first.  But  it  is  no  breach 
of  delicate  etiquette  to  hold  one's  hand  over  the  mouth,  and 
the  other  over  the  stomach,  and  with  suspicious  contortions, 
to  suck  in  one's  breath,  and  to  smack  the  tongue,  or  to  make 
sundry  gurgling  sounds,  indicating  a  serious  struggle  to  retain 
the  food.^  Irby  and  Mangles  tell  of  an  Arab  Sheikh,  who 
had  a  chance  rare  treat  of  roasted  partridges  brought  him,  and 
insisted,  "as  a.  mark  of  distinction,  on  throwing  a  leg  and  a 
wing  to  each  of  us." 

147.  Desserts.— The  desserts,  if  any,  at  the  ordinary  meal 

'See  Trumbull,  Oriental  Life,  92;  Wad  El-Ward,  Palestine,  53;  M>y  and  MnnKlcs, 
Travels,  263. 


104  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

consist  of  fruit,  fresh,  dried,  or  crushed,  or  of  leben  and  honey, 
or  fig  paste. 

After  the  meal,  tidy  men  and  Moslems  wash  the  mouth, 
teeth,  and  mustache,  using  soap  freely,  as  is  rather  necessary. 
The  Moslems  turn  over  what  is  left  of  the  contents  of  the 
common  dish  and  any  scraps  of  the  meal  for  their  women  to 
eat.  Coffee  is  universally  served.  The  men  smoke  pipes,  the 
narghileh,  and  chat  together  at  the  conclusion  of  the  meal. 
There  is  little  conversation  ordinarily  during  the  meal.  Busi- 
ness, social  chat,  and  all  important  matters  come  after  the 
feast,  and  over  the  coffee,  or  more  commonly,  over  the  nar- 
ghileh (pipe). 


SMoklM.     XARGHILEH. 
BUSINESS    AND    SOCIAL    CONFERENCE   AFTER    ORIENTAL   FEAST. 
{.Copyright  by  Underiuood  &  Underwood^  New  York.) 


y.  104 


XV. 


DRESS   AND   ORNAMENTS. 


148.  Costume  HedthfuL— To  any  person  of  wide  observa- 
tion the  native  Oriental  costume  will  be  thought  more  grace- 
ful, if  not  more  artistic  and  modest,  than  most  of  our  European 
and  American  styles  of  dress.  If  any  one  questions  this  state- 
ment, he  will  be  convinced  should  he  see  an  Oriental  peasant 
decked  out  in  the  highest  fashion  of  Western  dress-making. 
Tourists  may  smile  at  the  simplicity  of  dress  of  the  native  man 
or  woman  of  the  East,  because  it  is  new  and  to  him  unfamiliar, 
but  there  is  litde  doubt  of  the  costume  being  more  healthful, 
as  well  as  more  simple,  than  ours.  Nor  need  we  think  them 
untidy  or  lacking  in  comfort  because  they  dispense  with  some 
articles  of  dress  which  we  deem  essential.  The  climate  often 
calls  for  a  different  costume  for  comfort.  Thus,  they  count 
stockings  an  unsanitary  snare.  The  native  women  seldom 
wear  shoes  in  the  dwelling  or  village  lest  they  be  laughed  at, 
while  women  with  us  would  not  go  without  them  for  fear  of 
ridicule.  Men  wear  large  roomy  shoes  or  sandals.  On  rough 
roads  the  women  wear  the  same  kind  of  shoe  as  the  men, 
especially  in  Syria. 

149.  Turban  and  Aba. — The  most  conspicuous  article  of 
dress  among  the  Orientals  is  the  turban,  called  by  various 
names.  This  cap  or  covering  for  the  head  comes  handy  for 
several  purposes  to  the  native  Oriental.  He  not  only  uses  it 
for  a  head  dress,  but  for  a  barley  measure  to  measure  grain, 
and  for  a  nose  bag  when  feeding  his  donkey.  The  most  im- 
portant article  of  dress  is  the  cloak,  sometimes  called  the  aba. 
This  is  a  large  mande  or  garment  completely  covering  the 
wearer.  He  uses  it  for  this  purpose  in  the  day  time,  as  a  rug 
when  he  sits  down,  as  a  mat  for  his  visitors  at  home,  which  is 
a  high  honor,  and  as  a  blanket  under  which  he  sleeps  at  night. 

105 


Io6  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

For  this  reason,  when  a  man  gave  his  coat  as  a  pledge,  it  must 
be  returned  to  him  at  sundown,  because  this  cloak  or  coat  is 
his  bedding.^ 

150.  KuJ'tan.. — The  Jewish  rabbis  have  a  tradition  growing 
out  of  this  command:  "  On  the  Sabbath  day,  if  you  use  or  call 
a  coat  a  bed,  it  remains  a  bed  all  that  day,  and  a  man  must  not 
carry  it."  For  it  would  break  their  interpretation  of  the  law 
of  the  Sabbath .2  It  was  either  this  coat,  chiton-kuftan,  outer 
garment,  or  possibly  the  tunic  (under  garment),  for  which  the 
Roman  soldiers  cast  lots.^  The  coat  is  now  sometimes  made 
without  a  seam,  a  mixture  of  wool  and  camels'  hair.  The  so- 
called  "tunic"  is  a  long  cloth  skirt  reaching  from  the  shoulders 
nearly  to  the  ankles,  like  a  bath  robe  in  modem  times.*  Some- 
times the  natives  go  upon  the  street  with  the  tunic,  and  a 
short  jacket  over  it,  having  a  sash  or  shawl  as  a  girdle  around 
the  loins. 

151.  The  Girdle. — The  girdle  is  not  only  a  picturesque 
article  of  dress  with  the  Orientals,  but  it  may  also  indicate 
the  position  and  office  of  the  wearer.  It  is  sometimes  used 
to  signify  power  and  strength.^  The  laborer  and  the  poorer 
classes  use  rawhide  or  rope  for  a  girdle;  the  better  classes 
use  some  woolen  or  camels'  hair  sashes,  woven  of  different 
widths.  The  more  richly  dressed  persons  have  a  girdle  of 
silk  in  bright  colors;  in  fact,  the  Orientals  delight  in  strong 
colors,  not  only  for  the  girdle,  but  for  other  portions  of  their 
dress.  The  women  wear  long  garments  reaching  to  the  feet, 
and  a  girdle  of  silk  or  wool,  usually  having  all  the  colors  of 
the  rainbow,  and  with  a  fringe  hanging  from  the  waist  nearly 
to  the  ankles.  Sometimes  they  have  on  the  breast  ornaments 
of  gold,  brass,  silver,  or  colored  stones  or  gems,  or  a  breast- 
plate of  silver  and  gold  coins. 

152.  String  of  Coins. — The  head-dress  is  a  cap  (when  the 
woman  is  married),  flat  on  top,  covered  with  silver  or  gold 
coins,  which  indicates  her  wealth.     The  loss  of  one  of  these 

•  Ex.  22  :  26.  27.  '  Tnlmud.  '  John  19  :  23. 

*  Luke  6  :  29.  '2  Sara.  22  :  40;  Isaiah  11:5;  Jcr.  13:1;  Eph.  6  :  14. 


DRESS   AND   ORNAMENTS.  I07 

coins  would  be  a  calamity,  hence  the  force  of  the  parable  of  our 
Lord,  "What  woman,  having  ten  pieces  of  silver,  if  she  lose 
one  piece,  doth  not  light  a  lamp,  and  sweep  the  house,  and 
seek  diligently  until  she  find  it?"*  The  costume  of  women, 
in  general,  is  distinguished  from  that  worn  by  men  by  the  head- 
dress, veil,  ornaments,  and  the  style  of  wearing  other  portions 
of  the  attire. 

153.  Dress  in  Africa. — Laborde,  in  his  travels  among  the 
Bedouins  of  Northern  Africa,  found  the  two  chief  garments 
to  be  a  kind  of  "coat"  and  a  "mantle."  The  first  was,  in  fact, 
an  under  garment  like  a  shirt  with  sleeves,  and  was  bound  by 
a  leathern  girdle  such  as  Elijah  and  John  the  Baptist  wore.^ 
The  outer  garment,  called  aba,  or  large  mantle,  has  "one 
comer  made  fast  to  the  girdle,  and  permits  the  rest  to  fall 
in  majestic  folds  from  the  shoulders."  Lane  describes  the 
dress  of  the  middle  and  higher  classes  of  modem  Egyptians 
as  quite  the  same  as  their  ancestors  had  for  centuries.  They 
wear  libas  or  full  drawers,  like  very  baggy  trousers  of  linen 
or  cotton,  fastened  by  a  mnning  string  or  band  around  the 
waist,  and  reaching  below  the  knees.  Next  they  have  a 
shirt,  with  full  sleeves  made  of  linen,  cotton,  or  silk,  of  a  loose 
open  texture.  Over  this  they  wear  the  soodeyree  or  vest  of 
striped  silk  or  cotton,  and  then  put  on  the  kuftan,  a  long  gar- 
ment reaching  to  the  ankles,  with  flowing  long  sleeves,  so  that 
the  hands  may  be  concealed  in  them.  Sometimes  a  loose  robe 
or  outer  mantle,  called  jooheh,  may  be  worn,  an  outside  rich 
robe  or  some  loose  flowing  robe  of  cloth  like  the  kiifian,  but 
more  ample.  This  robe  is  for  state  occasions  or  some  great 
ceremony.  The  head-dress  or  turban  is  of  many  kinds,  colors, 
and  sizes.  But  a  shereef  only  (follower  of  the  prophet)  may 
wear  a  green  turban  or  bright  green  attire.  The  shoes  are 
pointed,  tuming  up  at  the  toes,  and  of  thick  leather.  Often 
two  pairs  of  shoes  are  worn,  one  within  the  other,  but  no 
stockings.  The  miirkoob,  or  outer  shoes,  are  taken  off  on 
entering  a  mosque  or  walking  upon  rugs,  but  the  medz  or  inner 

"  Luke  15:8.  2  Kings  i  :  8;  Matt.  3  :  4. 


Io8  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE   LANDS. 

shoe  is  not  removed.  A  pipe  goes  with  the  Egyptian  wherever 
he  goes,  except,  perhaps,  to  his  place  of  worship.  The  turban 
of  the  peasant  may  be  a  white,  red,  or  yellow  shawl  several 
yards  long,  deftly  wound  into  a  huge  cap  or  head-gear. 

154.  Dress  in  Syria. — Prof.  Post  tells  us  that  religious  per- 
sonages in  Asia,  such  as  the  great  lights  of  Islam,  wear  long, 
loose,  flowing  robes,  often  lined  with  fur  reaching  to  the  feet, 
reminding  us  of  what  our  Lord  said  to  his  disciples;  "Beware 
of  the  scribes  which  love  to  go  in  long  clothing."  ^  "  It  is  not 
uncommon  in  Syria  to  wear  over  the  whole  dress  a  loose,  long, 
bag-like  garment,  sometimes  also  called  aba,  and  with  a  hole 
for  the  neck  and  arms,  to  protect  from  dust  and  mud."  Some- 
times also  "  two  coats,"  tunics,  or  mantles  were  worn  as  a  mark 
of  elegance — a  habit  forbidden  the  disciples.^  Again,  if  a 
person  has  only  a  tunic  or  under  garment  on,  he  is  often  said 
to  be  "naked, "  as  in  our  Lord's  day.^  Thus,  it  is  said  of  Peter 
that  he  girt  his  fisher's  coat  about  him,  for  he  was  naked.* 
So  it  is  said  of  Saul  he  "lay  down  naked  all  that  day,"  because 
he  had  stripped  off  his  clothes,  that  is,  he  had  thrown  off  his 
outer  garment.^  And  Isaiah  is  described  as  "walking  naked 
and  barefoot"  when  he  had  put  sackcloth  from  off  him,  that 
sackcloth  being  worn  over  the  coat  or  under  garment.^ 

155.  In  Walking. — The  flowing  robes  interfered  with  walk- 
ing, so  when  one  is  said  to  gird  up  his  loins,  he  is  preparing  for  a 
journey  or  for  work. 

An  "old  garment"  of  an  Oriental  is  described  by  a  keen 
observer  "as  a  series  of  holes  ^\ith  the  borders  worn  out."  ^ 

The  hopelessness  of  mending  such  a  garment  with  new  cloth 
is  a  forcible  illustration  of  our  Lord's  parable.* 

156.  Signet. — As  the  Orientals  are  fond  of  bright  colors  in 
dress,  so  they  are  also  fond  of  ornaments,  both  men  and 
women.  Thus,  Tamar  asked  Judah  to  give  her  "  Thy  signet,  and 
thy  bracelets,  and  thy  staff."  ^  The  signet  ring  identified  the 
owner,  and  attested  any  letter  or  writing  which  he  might  make. 

'  Mark  12  :  38.  '  M.irk  6:9.  '  Mark  14  :  51;  Matt.  25  :  36. 

*  John  21:7.  ^  I  Sam.  10  :  24.  •  Isaiah  20  :  2. 

»  S.  S.  World,  1882.     •  Mark  2:21;  Matt.  9  :  16;  Luke  5:6.  »  Gen.  38  :  18. 


DRESS   AND   ORNAMENTS.  IO9 

Thus,  Pharaoh  gave  his  signet  ring  to  Joseph  as  a  sign  of 
authority.^  Ahasuerus  gave  his  ring  unto  Haman."  The 
carefubess  with  which  this  signet  rmg  was  guarded  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  declaration  of  Jehovah,  "Though  ...  the 
king  of  Judah  were  the  signet  upon  my  right  hand,  yet  would  I 
pluck  thee  thence."  ^  This  signet  ring  was  the  valid  mark  of 
authority  and  confidence.  "Almost  every  person  who  can  afford 
it  has  a  seal  ring,  even  though  he  be  a  servant,"  says  Lane  of 
modem  Egyptians.  Dr.  Perkins  found  the  same  ornament 
worn  in  Persia,  and  it  was  common  not  only  to  Egyptians  and 
Asiatics,  but  with  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  it  is  with  Turks  to 
this  day. 

157.  Nose  Rings. — Earrings  and  nose  rings  are  also  special 
deUghts  to  Orientals.  Harmer  tells  us  "  In  almost  all  the  East 
the  women  wear  rings  in  their  noses,  in  the  left  nostril,  which  is 
bored  low  down  in  the  middle.  These  rings  are  of  gold,  and 
have  commonly  two  pearls  and  one  ruby  betv/een,  placed  in  the 
ring.  I  never  saw  a  girl  or  young  woman,  in  Arabia  or  Persia, 
who  did  not  wear  a  ring  after  this  manner  in  her  nostril." 
Layard  describes  an  Arab  lady  with  a  prodigious  gold  ring,  set 
with  jewels  of  such  ample  dimensions  that  it  covered  her  mouth, 
and  had  to  be  removed  when  the  lady  ate.*  Bruce  describes 
a  similar  nose  ring  upon  a  lady,  and  adds,  "I  think  she  must 
have  breathed  with  great  difficulty." 

158.  Earrings. — Earrings  were  of  like  extraordinary  size. 
Thus  Layard  says  of  a  woman  of  the  East,  "Hanging  from  each 
ear,  and  reaching  to  her  waist,  was  an  enormous  ring  of  gold, 
terminating  in  a  tablet  of  the  same  material,  carved  and  orna- 
mented with  four  turquoises."  Bruce  describes  the  Queen  of 
Nubia  with  earrings  reaching  to  her  shoulders. 

159.  Chains  and  Mirrors.— Gold  chains  are  still  worn  mth 
necklaces,  bracelets,  armlets,  anklets,  and  metal  mirrors, 
as  they  were  three  thousand  years  ago.*  Thus,  Pharaoh  put 
a  gold  chain  around  Joseph's  neck,  and  Daniel  was  clothed  in 

>  Gen.  41  :  43.  «  Esther  3  :  10.  V".  22  :  24. 

<  Ninei'eh,  I,  loi,  *  Gen.  41  ;  42;  D^n.  s  :  2y;  oee  Song  of  Sol.  i  :  lo. 


no  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

a  similar  chain  of  gold  by  Belshazzar.  And  Jehovah,  describ- 
ing his  love  and  his  blessings  upon  Jerusalem,  declared,  "I 
deck  thee  also  ^vith  ornaments,  and  I  put  bracelets  upon  thy 
hands,  and  a  chain  on  thy  neck.  And  I  put  a  ring  upon  thy  nose, 
and  earrings  in  thine  ears,  and  a  beautiful  crown  upon  thy 
head."^  Layard  speaks  of  "loud  jingling  made  by  the  loose 
silver  rings  on  the  wrists  and  ankles,"  which  illustrated  the 
prophet's  statement  about  the  daughters  of  Zion  "walking  and 
mincing  as  they  go,  and  making  a  tinkling  with  their  feet."  ^  Dr. 
Arthur  J.  Brown  tells  of  the  intense  curiosity  of  Korean  women 
over  Mrs.  Brown's  American  dress.  They  thronged  about  her, 
feeling  of  her  shoes  and  dress,  trying  on  her  hat,  wanting  to  un- 
do her  hair,  trying  to  take  ofif  her  wedding  ring,  and  rubbed  her 
cheek  to  see  whether  her  complexion  would  come  off,  all  the 
while  excitedly  jabbering  and  laughing  at  so  strange  an  object.^ 

i6o.  Korean  Dress. — The  Korean's  dress  is  so  distinctive, 
as  well  as  Oriental,  that  you  cannot  mistake  him  among  any 
number  of  other  nationalities.  If  his  hat  is  white,  he  is  be- 
trothed; if  he  has  a  thin  white  cloth  over  his  nose  and  mouth,  he 
is  in  mourning;  if  his  hair  is  in  a  top  knot,  he  is  married.  Usu- 
ally his  garments  are  white,  his  hat  with  a  small  round  crown,  a 
broad  brim  of  black  thread  or  horse-hair,  is  tied  under  his 
chin.* 

Of  the  Siamese  in  the  far  East  it  is  said,  "he  is  sleek  and  well- 
fed,  and  wears  more  gold  and  silver  ornaments  than  any  other 
native  of  Asia.  Naked  children  playing  in  the  street  are 
decked  with  silver  anklets,  wristlets,  and  necklaces."  ^ 

•Ezek.  i6  :  ii,  12.  « Isaiah  3  :  16-23. 

»  See  "The  Nearer  and  Farther  East,"  p.  266.  *  Ibid.,  d.  264. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  167. 


XVI. 

DISEASES  AND   MEDICINE. 

i6i.  Evil  Spirits. — To  heal  the  sick  among  Orientals  is  a 
part  of  the  work  of  the  priest,  the  dervish,  or  the  holy  man  in 
the  mind  of  most  of  the  natives.  This  comes  from  the  belief 
that  a  large  number  of  the  disorders  of  the  body  are  a  punish- 
ment for,  or  a  consequence  of,  sins  committed  by  the  sufferer 
or  his  relatives.  In  a  large  number  of  cases  these  disorders  are 
attributed  to  the  influence  of  evil  spkits.  Hence,  a  pious  man 
is,  in  their  view,  the  proper  person  to  treat  disease.  For  the 
most  part,  Oriental  methods  of  dealing  with  physical  disorders 
are  what  we  would  call  the  methods  of  the  charlatan.  The 
hakim,  or  medicine  man,  like  the  dervish,  uses  charms,  amulets, 
incantations,  as  well  as  herbs,  for  effecting  a  cure.  Of  the 
diseases  common  now  in  Syria,  Prof.  Grant  names  fevers,  di- 
gestive troubles,  influenzas,  rheumatism,  and  diseases  of  the 
eye. 

162.  Leprosy. — Thomson  found  leprosy  common  in  Jerusalem 
and  in  different  parts  of  Syria,  and  declares  that  it  still  cleaves 
to  Damascus,  the  city  of  Naaman.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr. 
Haddad,  himself  a  native  of  Damascus,  says  the  people  of 
Damascus  have  never  known  anyone  of  their  city  to  be  afflicted 
with  leprosy.  There  is  a  "home"  for  lepers  in  Damascus  (and 
a  hospital  in  Jerusalem)  which  tradition  says  was  built  by 
Naaman,  the  Syrian.  It  is  a  great  house,  with  separate  rooms, 
and  meals  are  served  to  the  lepers  separately,  or  two  or  three  of 
a  family  together.  It  is  believed  that  when  lepers  come  to  this 
home  the  disease  will  not  increase. 

163.  Dr.  Post  on  Leprosy. — Prof.  Post,  out  of  a  lifetime  of 
medical  practice  in  Syria,  and  after  special  study  of  leprosy,  tells 
me  he  is  confident  that  the  leprosy  of  the  East,  now  known  as 
Elephantiasis  Arabttm,  is  not  the  leprosy  of  Leviticus  and  other 
Scriptures.    He  holds  that  the  so-called  Aleppo  button  or,  as  the 

111 


112  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

Arabs  call  it,  ^^year  boil"  is  often  followed  by  tetter  or  lepra 
vulgaris,  "  a  spreading  scabby  eruption  following  much  the 
course  described  in  Lev.  13  :  18-23."  He  asserts  that  none  of 
the  well-known  signs  and  appearances  of  the  greater  leprosy  are 
described  in  Lev.  13  and  14.  In  his  opinion  the  spreading  of  the 
chronic  form  of  lepra  vulgaris  "is  a  more  visible  and  disgust- 
ing disease  than  elephantiasis  (modem  leprosy),  is  very  iu- 
tractible,  incurable  by  ordinary  medical  means,  loathsome  to 
the  beholder,  and  suitable  as  a  legal  and  ceremonial  illustra- 
tion of  moral  uncleanliness."  Thus,  he  adds,  "  the  description 
of  the  healing  of  Naaman  looks  more  like  the  cleaning  off  of  an 
eruption  than  the  remaking  of  carious  bone  and  re-creation  of 
lost  members."  So,  too,  "Gehazi  went  out  as  white  as  snow" 
is  an  exact  description  of  a  man  with  lepra,  and  not  at  all  ac- 
curate of  a  victim  of  elephantiasis.  Miriam  also  became  as 
"  white  as  snow."  ^  This  lepra  is  not  an  uncommon  disease  in 
Syria  now. 

164.  Leprosy  in  Palestine. — P.  J.  Baldensperger,  in  the 
Palestine  Quarterly,  1900,  takes  the  same  view  as  Prof.  Post, 
"The  leprosy  now  found  in  Palestine  is  not  the  disease  so  often 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  modem  leprosy  is  different, 
and  is  only  contagious  if  the  matter  from  a  leper  be  brought  into 
the  blood  or  into  the  wound  of  another." 

Mr.  Haddad  found  a  young  man  in  a  pitiful  condition,  a  case 
of  epilepsy  probably.  "His  eyes  bloodshot  and  glaring; 
fiercely  biting  his  tongue,  frothing  at  the  mouth,  bleeding  at  the 
nose,  and  tossing  about  unconsciously.  He  tried  to  restore 
him  by  bathing  his  face  in  cooling  water  and  gi%ang  him  inhala- 
tions of  ammonia.  One  of  the  crowd,  looking  on,  said,  'Your 
trouble  is  in  vain.  Many  physicians  have  tried  to  cure  him 
and  have  failed.  He  is  possessed  of  an  evil  spirit.' "  ^  Cripples 
are  also  numerous  throughout  Syria  and  the  East.  They  are 
still  seen  at  the  entrances  to  mosques  and  churches,  often  five 
or  six  lame  persons  begging  for  bread. 

•  2  Kings  s  :  lo,  14,  27;  Num.  12  :  10. 

*  Compare  Matt.  4  :  24;  8  :  6;  17  :  15;  Mark  9  :  18;  Luke  0  :  39. 


DISEASES   AND   MEDICINE.  II3 

165.  Demon  Possession. — The  Christian  sects  do  not,  as  a 
rule,  now  believe  in  demoniacal  possessions,  but  some  people 
in  Syria  still  believe  that  demons  enter  men,  and  they  try  to 
drive  them  out  by  prayers,  readings  from  sacred  books,  beating 
the  possessed  one  with  shoes,  and  other  ways.  Dr.  Nevius 
found  a  similar  belief  widely  prevalent  throughout  China,  and, 
after  a  long  experience  and  careful  examination  of  a  great 
number  of  cases,  he  reluctandy  was  forced  to  the  conviction  that 
there  were  well-established  cases  of  such  possessions  now  among 
the  Chinese  similar  to  those  noted  in  our  Lord's  day  in  Syria. 

166.  Barber-doctors. — Physicians  and  medical  science  were 
known  in  Egypt  five  thousand  years  ago,  but  Lane  found 
that  modem  Egyptian  medical  and  surgical  practitioners 
were  mostly  barbers,  miserably  ignorant  of  the  science  which 
they  professed  and  unskilful  in  practice.  In  fact,  it  is  widely 
true  now  that  among  the  lower  classes  of  Orientals  everybody 
attempts  to  give  medical  advice  and  to  prescribe  for  the  sick. 
Van  Lennep  says  that  the  description  of  Herodotus  is  an 
excellent  sketch  of  the  state  of  things  at  the  present  day  in  all 
parts  of  the  land,  except  that  the  sick  man  remains  at  home.^ 

167.  Shepherd-doctors  and  Dogs. — Out  of  his  experience 
as  a  native,  Mr.  Haddad  declares  that  shepherds,  being  in 
a  habit  of  bandaging  the  broken  legs  of  their  sheep  and  goats, 
are  asked  to  bandage  the  bones  of  people,  for  native  physicians 
are  not  to  be  found  in  Syria,  except  those  recentiy  trained  in 
B'^irut  College  and  similar  mission  schools.  "The  so-called 
Egyptian  eye  disease  is  prevalent  in  Syria,  due  to  the  sandy 
dust  m  hot  weather,  and  to  the  eating  of  green  fruits,  especi- 
ally green  figs,  without  being  careful  to  clean  their  hands  and 
eyes,  and  the  caiTying  of  foul  matter  by  flies,  thus  transferring 
the  germs  of  disease  from  inflamed  eyes  to  sound  ones." 
He  further  notes  that  the  poor  who  are  afBicted  with  sores, 
expose  them  purposely  to  the  dogs  to  be  licked,  trusting  their 
saliva  will  help  to  cure  them. 

168.  Feeding  Lepers.— Lepers   may  still  be  seen  frequentiy 

•  See  Herodotus,  Book  I,  chapter  197. 
8 


114  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

near  the  town  of  NablOs  (ancient  Shechem).  Mr.  Haddad 
found  many  of  them  by  the  road,  who  cried  to  him  and  his 
companions  from  a  distance.  They  have  no  home.  If  they 
had  relatives  they  could  not  live  with  them.  They  sleep  in 
caves  or  in  cabins  erected  by  themselves  or  by  charity,  and  in 
the  ruins  of  old  buildings.  Food  is  given  to  them  by  the 
people,  who  leave  it  near  by  for  them  to  come  and  get  after  the 
givers  have  gone  away. 

A  malignant  form  of  malarial  fever  attacks  with  fatal  results 
nomadic  Arab  tribes,  who  come  into  the  marshes  and  low 
ground  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

169.  The  Insane. — The  number  of  demented  persons  does  not 
seem  to  be  large  in  Syria;  a  few  dangerous  maniacs  are  some- 
times chained  in  the  houses  of  their  friends.  Some  pretend  to 
healing  powers,  generally  Moslems,  who  wander  around  in 
coarse  robes,  alrnost  naked,  with  a  tin  box  for  alms,  and  a 
spear,  perhaps  to  protect  themselves  against  dogs  and  wild 
beasts.  "Their  persons  are  never  washed  and  their  hair  is 
long,  matted,  and  filled  witli  vermin.  In  fanatical  outbreaks 
these  dervishes  take  a  leading  and  mischievous  part." 

170.  Oil  and  Honey  Remedies. — The  Orientals  regard  honey 
as  a  remedy  of  great  efficacy  for  many  diseases  of  the  stomach, 
the  nerves,  and  even  for  healing  broken  bones. 

The  great  remedy  among  Orientals  is  oil.  It  is  not  only  used 
to  restore  weary  limbs  after  a  fight  or  violent  exercise,  and  to 
set  apart  persons  to  sacred  offices,  but  it  is  regarded  as  almost 
indispensable  to  keep  one  in  health.  Olive  oil  is  esteemed 
the  foremost  of  necessities.  Orientals  generally,  and  Moslems 
in  particular,  consider  the  olive  a  sacred  tree,  one  of  the  trees 
of  paradise,  and  that  its  oil  is  good  for  healing.  It  is  men- 
tioned 175  times  in  the  Scriptures.  The  use  of  oil  for  the  sick 
is  commended:  "Is  any  sick  among  you?  let  him  call  for  the 
elders  of  the  church;  and  let  them  pray  over  him,  anointing 
him  ^vith  oil  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.'"  When  Jesus  sent 
forth  the  twelve,  it  is  said,  "they  cast  out  many  demons,  and 

•  James  s  :  i4. 


DISEASES   AND   MEDICINE.  US 

anointed  with  oil  many  that  were  sick,  and  healed  them."^ 
The  good  Samaritan  is  represented  in  caring  for  the  man  who 
fell  among  robbers,  as  binding  up  his  wounds,  "pouring  in  oil 
and  wine." 2  "The  oil  of  the  East,"  says  Post,  "is  almost 
wholly  extracted  from  the  oUve."  "There  are,  however,  oils 
used  for  food  and  medicine  and  arts,  extracted  from  the  ses- 
ame, castor-bean,  flax,  and  other  plants.  No  animal  oils  seem 
to  have  been  used  in  Bible  lands  or  times." 

171.  Medicine-man. — The  Iiakim,  or  medicine-man,  can 
safely  travel  anywhere  in  the  East.  When  he  appears  in  a 
village  "the  people  gather  together  where  he  stops,"  says  IVIr. 
Haddad,  "some  from  idle  curiosity,  but  many  who  are  sick 
for  advice,  and  to  be  cured.  The  crowd  follow  him  from  house 
to  house,  and  from  one  village  to  another,  not  giving  him  time 
to  eat." 

The  reader  will  be  struck  with  the  close  similarity  of  the 
Oriental  "hakim"  to  a  description  of  the  American  Indian 
medicine-man  by  Longfellow  in  Hiawatha: 

"  Wandered  eastward,  wandered  westward, 
Teaching  men  the  use  of  simples 
And  the  antidotes  for  poisons. 
And  the  cure  of  all  diseases. 
Thus  was  first  made  known  to  mortals 
All  the  mystery  of  Medamin, 
All  the  sacred  art  of  healing." 

172.  Sick  Everywhere. — Most  of  the  diseases  known  in  the 
East  now  are  the  same  as  those  of  long  ago.  All  travelers 
in  the  Orient  tell  of  the  helpless  cripples,  the  half-naked 
wretched  creatures,  covered  with  sores,  in  misery  lying  at  other 
people's  gates.  Ophthalmia  and  fevers  are  widely  prevalent. 
Every  traveler  in  Eastern  lands  has  observed  its  serious  and 
widespread  ravages.  Thus,  Mr.  Baldensperger  says  of 
Ramleh  and  Lydda,  there  was  not  a  single  family  free  from 
eye-disease  of  one  kind  or  another.  "Out  of  a  hundred  boys 
in  the  mission  school,  ninety-five  had  sore  eyes  or  were  wholly 

»  Mark  6:13.  *  Luke  10  :  34- 


Il6  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

or  partially  blind."  Trumbull  declares,  "At  Cairo  the  blind, 
or  the  sick,  or  the  crippled  sat  at  every  street  comer  and  on 
every  square,  and  were  laid  at  every  mosque  door,  and  were 
crying  out  for  help  or  alms  before  every  bazaar." 

The  "healing  art"  has  been  sadly  lost  in  Egypt  and  even 
Assyria.  The  ancient  oculists  which  Cambyses  brought  from 
Eg)^t,  the  dentists,  the  special  medical  experts  of  Pharaoh's 
time  in  diseases  of  the  head,  the  digestive  and  the  vital  organs, 
have  passed  away,  their  art  lost,  and  they  have  no  successors 
there  in  modern  times.  Their  sensible  rules  as  to  diet  and 
the  prevention  of  disease  have  also  been  lost.^ 

Dr.  D.  O.  Allen  affirms^  that  medical  men  among  the 
Hindus  practiced  inoculation  for  small-pox  long  before  it 
was  known  in  Europe.  They  had  long  lists  of  remedies,  mineral, 
vegetable,  and  chemical  preparations,  which  were  given,  but 
often  mixed  with  superstitious  notions  regarded  as  essential 
for  their  efficacy.  The  profession  of  medicine  was  and  is  con- 
fined to  the  same  families  for  successive  generations,  the  father 
handing  down  to  his  sons  his  knowledge,  skill,  books,  and 
reputation.  They  were  never  skilled  in  surgery  because  of 
their  imperfect  knowledge  of  anatomy. 

1  See  Kenrick,  I,  290;  Wilkinson,  II,  3SS-3S8;  Lane,  I,  277;  A.  T.  Clay,  Light  On  Old 
Testament,  216. 

2  India,  Ancient  and  Modem,  p.  457- 


XVII. 


MOURNING  AND   BURIALS. 


173.  Hysterical  Display. — Mourning  in  the  East,  like  other 
customs,  varies  in  different  Oriental  lands.  Sometimes  the 
mourners  are  hired,  but  they  do  not  take  the  place  of  mourning 
by  the  relatives.  Sometimes,  also,  the  mourning  begins 
before  the  person  is  actually  dead.  There  are  often  formal 
exercises,  with  as  much  pomp  and  display  as  the  condition  of 
the  sick  or  dying  person  will  permit.  The  bereaved  beat  the 
breast,  tear  the  hair,  throw  dust  over  their  persons,  fall  in 
hysterical  or  cataleptic  paroxysms,  and  in  India  the  widow 
throws  herself  on  the  funeral  pyre.  To  the  Oriental  the  quiet, 
deep  sorrow  of  the  West  seems  cold  and  unfeeling. 

174.  A  Syrian  Case. — When  death  comes  the  wailing  and 
violent  emotions  of  the  impulsive  nations  of  the  East  are  alarm- 
ing and  terrible  to  Western  beholders.  Prof.  Post  describes 
such  a  scene  witnessed  in  his  medical  practice  as  an  average 
example  of  the  extravagant  grief  of  Asiatics.  "The  patient 
had  fallen  into  an  old  stone  quarry,  a  depth  of  sixty  feet,  and 
suffered  an  injury  of  the  spine.  For  a  week  the  lower  portions 
of  the  body  had  been  paralyzed,  and  he  had  suffered  in  his 
whole  body  from  the  shock  of  the  fatal  injury.  ...  As  I  sat 
watching,  the  wife,  observing  the  anxiety  of  my  countenance, 
fell  on  her  knees  at  her  husband's  feet,  and  began  to  weep  and 
beat  her  breast.  In  a  few  minutes  the  eyes  became  fixed,  the 
breathing  shallower,  and  the  pulse  was  gone.  The  sister  then 
burst  into  the  room  like  a  maniac,  shrieking  with  anguish,  and 
threw  herself  down  by  her  brother's  side,  as  he  lay  on  his  bed 
on  the  floor,  seized  his  hand,  and  implored  him  to  give  her  one 
look.  Immediately,  while  he  yet  breathed,  the  crowd  of  women 
surged  into  the  room  and  filled  it  with  their  loud  wailings, 
tossing   their   arms   in   the   most   extravagant   gesticulations. 

117 


Il8  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

The  men  pressed  back  the  wife  and  sister,  and  endeavored 
to  check  the  shrieks,  until  at  least  the  sick  man  should  have 
expired.  Presently  they  too  yielded  to  the  infection  and 
joined  in  the  tumult.  No  voice  of  remonstrance  or  sympathy 
could  be  heard,  and  no  strength  of  will  or  power  of  persuasion 
could  restrain  the  wild  mass  which  now  filled  the  room  and 
clogged  the  approaches  to  the  house.  The  chief  mourners 
tore  their  hair,  rent  then:  garments,  beat  their  breasts,  threw 
•  themselves  wildly  on  the  ground,  invoked  the  dead,  implored 
the  bystanders,  did  everything  but  pray  to  God  for  patience 
and  comfort.  Little  children  added  then:  songs  and  screams 
to  the  clamor,  and  I  was  glad  to  retire  from  the  harrowing 
scene,  and  to  reflect  on  the  blessing  of  a  calm  trust  in  God  and 
patient  resignation  to  his  utmost  will.  These  wailings  last 
for  hours,  and  but  for  tlie  speedy  burial  of  the  dead,  would 
end  most  disastrously  to  the  living.  As  it  is,  the  chief  mourners 
are  often  made  ill  by  the  violence  of  their  grief." 

Dr.  F.  J.  Bliss,  the  explorer  of  Lachish,  tells  of  a  mourning 
delegation  at  the  tnahal,  or  mourning  house,  for  a  great  man. 
As  they  approach,  no  matter  how  gaily  they  may  have  been 
chatting,  they  rush  forward,  handkerchiefs  to  face,  sobbing, 
weeping,  with  demonstrations  of  great  grief,  going  through 
these  for  perhaps  the  tenth  time  in  the  day. 

175.  Death  Shriek. — Thus  the  late  Dr.  Amelia  B.  Edwards,  the 
Egyptologist,  describes  her  first  ex-perience  in  hearing  this  death 
shriek.  "All  at  once  we  heard  a  sound  like  the  far  ofif  waver- 
ing sound  of  many  owls.  It  shrilled,  swelled,  wavered,  dropped, 
and  then  died  away,  like  the  moaning  of  the  wind  at  sea.  We 
held  our  breath  and  listened.  We  never  heard  anything  so 
wild  and  plaintive."  Such  a  custom  is  alluded  to  by  the  prophet 
in  bemoaning  the  desolations  of  Samaria,  "For  this  will  I  lament 
and  wail,  I  will  go  stripped  and  naked;  I  will  make  a  wailing 
like  the  jackals,  and  a  lamentation  like  the  ostriches."  ^  Another 
old  prophet  tells  of  the  mourning  over  the  desolations  of  Israel: 
"  Wailing  shall  be  in  all  the  broad  ways;  and  they  shall  say  in  all 

I  Micah  I  :  8,  R.  V. 


MOURNING   AND   BURIALS.  II9 

the  streets,  Alas!  alas!  and  they  shall  call  the  husband  unto 
mourning,  and  such  as  arc  skillful  in  lamentation  to  wailing."  ^ 
The  mourning  of  women  is  also  repeatedly  mentioned,  both  in 
the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  New.  Thus,  the  prophet  breaks 
out,  "Call  for  the  mourning  women,  that  they  may  come;  and 
send  for  the  cunning  women,  that  they  may  come:  and  let  them 
make  haste,  and  take  up  a  wailing  for  us,  that  our  eyes  may  run 
down  with  tears,  and  our  eyeHds  gush  out  with  waters."  ^ 

176.  Lamentations. — The  calamity  of  being  denied  a  proper 
burial  finds  a  pathetic  lament  in  the  prophet's  exclamation, 
"They  shall  not  lament  for  him,  saying,  Ah,  my  brother!  or, 
Ah,  sister!  they  shall  not  lament  for  him,  saying.  Ah,  lord!  or  Ah, 
his  glory!  He  shall  be  buried  with  the  burial  of  an  ass,  drawn 
and  cast  forth  beyond  the  gates  of  Jerusalem."^  But  the  most 
pathetic  dirge  of  lament  is  that  of  David  over  his  son,  "The 
king  .  .  .  went  up  to  the  chamber  over  the  gate,  and  wept: 
and  as  he  went,  thus  he  said,  O  my  son  Absalom!  my  son,  my 
son  Absalom!  would  God  I  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom,  my 
son,  my  son!"* 

177.  Cries  and  Dirges. — Sir  J.  Chardin  speaks  of  the  un- 
governed  and  excessive  grief  of  Eastern  peoples,  which  he  heard 
at  Ispaham,  when  the  mistress  of  the  house  died.  "The 
moment  she  expired,  all  the  family,  to  the  number  of  twenty-five 
or  thirty  people,  set  up  such  a  furious  cry  that  I  was  quite 
startled."  This  happened  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  and 
Chardin  imagined  that  his  own  servants  were  actually  murdered. 
"The  suddenness  of  the  outcry  is  terrifying,  together  with  a 
shrillness  and  loudness  which  one  cannot  easily  imagine." 
And  Lane  speaks  of  the  same  custom  in  Egypt,  "Even  before 
the  spirit  has  departed,  the  women  of  the  family  raise  the  cries 
of  lamentation,  call  welweleh  or  wilwal;  uttering  the  most 
piercing  shrieks  and  calling  upon  the  name  of  the  deceased. 
In  Syria  the  custom  also  prevails  at  some  remote  villages,  and 
the  women  singers  chant  the  same  song  at  funerals  as  the  men 
singers  often  sing  at  marriage  feasts.      The  dirge  or  death  song 

'  Amos  5  :  16.         '  Jer.  9  :  17,  18.  '  Jer.  22  :  18,  19.         *  2  Sam.  18  :  33. 


I20  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE   LANDS. 

is  mentioned  by  Lane  as  common  in  Egypt.    The  chant  is  in 
Arabic;  this  is  a  translation  of  the  beginning  of  the  chant: 

"The  glory  of  him  who  createth  every  form, 

And  reduceth  his  servants  by  death, 
Who  bringeth  his  creatures  to  nought  with  mankind, 

They  all  shall  lie  in  the  graves, 
The  absolute  glory  of  the  Lord  of  the  East, 

The  absolute  glory  of  the  Lord  of  the  West, 
The  absolute  glory  of  the  creator  of  the  two  lights. 

The  sun  and  also  the  moon, 
His  absolute  glory;  how  bountiful  is  he! 

His  absolute  glory;  how  gracious  is  he  I 
His  absolute  glory;  how  great  is  he." 

In  Egypt  this  dirge  is  sung  by  a  procession  of  boys  who 
precede  the  body.  Behind  the  body  come  female  mourners, 
with  hair  disheveled,  but  concealed  by  the  head  veil,  who  are 
crjdng  and  shrieking,  often  aided  by  hired  mourners,  who  like- 
wise celebrate  the  praises  of  the  deceased. 

178.  Endangers  Life. — Even  to  this  day  in  that  region  mourn- 
ers are  so  violent  in  their  emotions  that  often  serious  injury 
comes  to  the  health  and  persons  of  the  mourners.  One 
physician  says  that  the  women  especially  beat  their  breasts  in 
such  a  way  as  to  develop  tumors  and  bring  on  serious  disease. 
They  wail  until  they  are  so  hoarse  that  they  cannot  speak,  they 
fall  fainting  to  the  ground,  and  refuse  to  eat  or  sleep.  The 
neighborhood  of  the  house  where  the  dead  is  resounds  with 
the  frantic  cries  of  mourners,  and  professional  mourners  are 
hired  to  add  their  artificial  wailings  to  the  agony  of  real  sorrow. 
No  wonder  the  apostle  reminds  the  Thessalonians  that  such 
sorrow  is  not  born  of  Christian  hope.^ 

179.  Burial. — Burial  usually  takes  place  soon  after  death. 
Prof.  Post  says,  "It  seldom  occurs  more  than  ten  hours  after 
death,  almost  never  on  the  succeeding  day.  The  rapidity  of 
decomposition,  the  excessive  violence  of  grief,  the  reluctance  of 
Orientals  to  allow  the  dead  to  remain  long  in  the  houses  of  the 
living  explain  what   seems   to  us  indecent  haste."      Notice 

I  Thess.  4  :  13. 


MOURNING   AND   BURIALS.  121 

the  case  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira.*  So,  too,  the  quickness 
with  which  the  bodies  of  Nadab  and  Abihu  were  carried  out  of 
camp  is  in  strict  accordance  with  present  Oriental  custom.^ 
The  dead  are  often  in  their  graves  within  two  or  three  hours  after 
death.  Thus  the  dead  son  of  the  widow  of  Nain  was  carried 
outside  the  walls  of  the  city,  where  Jesus  and  his  disciples  met 
the  procession  going  to  burial.^  Tombs  and  cemeteries  within 
the  walls  of  a  city  were,  and  still  are,  repugnant  to  Oriental 
ideas. 

1 80.  Wrapping  the  Body. — Dr.  Tristram,  from  his  observa- 
tions in  Western  Asia,  says:  "Interments  always  take  place,  at 
latest,  on  the  evening  of  day  of  death,  and  frequently  at  night. 
There  are,  and  can  be,  no  elaborate  preparations.  The  corpse 
is  dressed  in  such  clothes  as  were  worn  in  life,  and  stretched  on  a 
bier,  with  a  cloth  thrown  over  it."* 

A  native  of  Syria  states,  "It  is  still  the  custom  to  wrap  the 
dead.  The  face  is  covered  with  a  napkin,  the  hands  and  feet 
are  bound  and  swathed  in  cloths,  usually  of  linen.  This  bind- 
ing is  sometimes  by  a  napkin  and  sometimes  by  the  comers  of 
a  sheet.  The  body  is  then  placed  on  a  bier,  which  has  a  pole  at 
each  comer,  by  means  of  which  it  is  carried  on  the  shoulders  to 
the  tomb."  Christians  use  cofl5ns,  but  this  is  quite  a  modem 
custom  there.     Moslems  do  not  use  them. 

Prof.  Grant  adds.  Death,  among  tlie  peasantry,  is  an  occa- 
sion for  long  mourning.  The  body  is  wrapped  and  placed  in  the 
ground,  and  protected  from  the  falling  earth  as  well  as  may  be 
by  the  use  of  stones.  On  the  top  of  the  grave  the  heaviest 
stones  obtainable  are  packed,  to  make  it  difficult  for  hyenas  to 
secure  the  body.  It  is  customary  to  watch  the  grave  many 
nights  to  keep  these  creatures  away.* 

181.  Spices  in  Burial. — It  is  still  common  to  place  with  the 
wrappings  of  the  body  spices  and  preparations  to  retard  de- 
composition. Thus,  the  friends  at  Bethany  \\Tapped  the 
body  of   their   brother  Lazarus,  and  he  came  forth  bound 

«  Acts  s  '.  5.  6.  lo-  *  Lev.  10  :  4-  '  Luke  7  :  n. 

*  Eastern  Customs,  p.  94.         '  Compire  Job  21  :  32. 


122  ORIENTALISMS   IN    BIBLE   LANDS. 

or  wrapped  in  these  linen  clothes,  with  a  napkin  bound  about 
his  head.^  Nicodemus  also  brought  "a  mixture  of  myrrh  and 
aloes,  about  an  hundred  pound  weight,"  so  they  took  the  body 
"of  Jesus,  and  wound  it  in  linen  clothes  mth  the  spices,  as  the 
manner  of  the  Jev/s  is  to  bury."  And  Mary  Magdalene  and 
two  other  women  brought  spices  for  the  same  purpose.^  This 
is  a  very  old  custom,  for  Asa,  the  king,  was  laid  "in  the  bed 
which  was  filled  with  sweet  odours  and  divers  kinds  of  spices 
prepared  by  the  apothecaries'  art."  ^  The  widow's  son  at 
Nain  was  carried  out  on  a  bier,  not  in  a  coffin.* 

182.  Embalming. — In  Egypt,  however,  embalming  the  body 
of  the  dead  was  a  common  custom  for  many  centuries.  Long 
before  Jacob  or  Abraham  visited  it,  the  priests,  or  a  special 
class  of  persons,  were  trained  in  this  art,  as  we  know  from  the 
embalmed  bodies  of  the  Pharaohs  which  have  been  recovered 
in  our  time  from  those  ancient  tombs.  It  was  further  the  cus- 
tom for  the  nearest  relative  to  close  the  eyes  of  the  dying. 
Thus,  it  is  said,  "Joseph  shall  put  his  hand  upon  thine 
(Jacob's)  eyes."  ^  This  clearly  refers  to  that  custom.  Joseph 
closed  the  eyes  of  his  father  Jacob  at  death.  When  Jacob  died 
"Joseph  commanded  his  servants  the  physicians  to  embalm  his 
father."  *  And  Joseph  when  he  died  was  also  embalmed  and 
"put  in  a  coffin  (Sarcophagus)  in  Egypt."  The  process  of 
embalming  is  too  long  to  be  cited  here,  but  a  description  of  it 
may  be  found  in  Herodotus  2,  86,  and  in  Wilkinson-Birch's 
Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  iii,  pp.  470-491. 

Modem  Egyptians  do  not  thus  prepare  the  body  for  burial; 
according  to  Lane;  they  thoroughly  wash  the  whole  body, 
sprinkle  it  with  a  mixture  of  pounded  camphor  and  rose-water, 
bind  the  ankles  together,  and  place  the  hands  upon  the  breast. 
If  a  poor  man,  the  body  is  wrapped  in  a  piece  or  two  of  cotton 
cloth;  if  of  wealth,  it  is  generally  first  wrapped  in  muslin,  then 
in  cotton  cloth  of  thicker  texture,  and  lastly  in  a  piece  of  striped 
silk  and  cotton  intermixed,  or  in  a  kuftan  of  similar  material, 

>  Tohn  II  :  44.         *  John  19  :  39,  40;  Mark  16  :  i;  Luke  24  :  i- 

•  a  Cbioa.  16  :  14.  *  Luke  7:14-  '  Gen.  46  :  4-  *  Gen.  50  :  a. 


MOURNING   AND   BURIALS.  1 23 

and  over  this  is  wrapped  a  Cashmere  shawl.  The  body  of  a 
man  of  middle  rank  is  clothed  also  \Adth  a  yelek.  The  colors 
most  approved  are  white  and  green,  but  any  color  is  used  ex- 
cepting blue  or  what  approaches  to  blue.* 

183.  Rending  the  Garment. — In  some  countries  the  first  sign 
of  grief  is  the  rending  of  the  garment  of  the  living  mourners. 
Dr.  Tristram  further  says,  "In  preparing  for  burial  the  women 
whose  special  duty  it  was,  would  provide  a  cerecloth,  and  be- 
fore wrapping  the  body  in  it,  sprinkle  spices  in  the  folds,  as  in 
the  case  of  our  Lord's  burial,  to  check  decomposition  in  some 
slight  degree."  They  then  "dressed  the  deceased  in  his  best 
outer  garments,  and  laid  him  on  a  bier,  a  simple  flat  board, 
borne  on  two  or  three  staves,  by  which  the  bearers  carried  it  to 
the  tomb."  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  dress  of  the  East 
was  loose,  so  that  by  unfastening  the  girdle,  the  garments 
could  be  wrapped  around  the  body,  like  a  wdnding-sheet,  so  as 
to  cover  it  from  head  to  foot. 

184.  At  the  Tomb. — The  burial  places  of  Moslem,  Jewish, 
and  Christian  peoples  of  the  East  are  now  quite  distinct;  in 
ancient  times  they  were  alike,  in  that  each  had  their  own  family 
tombs,  either  a  natural  cave,  prepared  with  stone  shelves  to 
receive  the  body,  or  hewn  out  of  rock  in  the  hill  side,  each  tomb 
or  sepulchre  having  many  niches  or  locidi,  in  each  one  of  which 
a  body  could  be  placed.  No  Jew  could  sell  his  burying  place, 
and  in  China  it  was  and  is  held  to  be  a  capital  offense  to  disturb 
a  tomb,  no  matter  how  ancient  it  might  be. 

185.  Weeping  at  Tomb. — In  Syria,  as  elsewhere  also,  there 
is  a  stated  time  for  mourning  at  the  tomb.  The  friends  go  to 
the  tomb  without  ornaments,  often  with  their  hair  disheveled, 
some  of  them  with  blackened  faces,  either  vsdth  soot  or  with 
mud,  some  also  with  their  oldest  and  poorest  clothing,  sitting  in 
a  circle,  or  together  near  the  tomb,  often  breaking  out  also  into  a 
weird  dirge-like  song.  In  some  parts  of  Syria  it  is  the  custom 
to  visit  the  tomb  thus  on  the  third,  seventh,  and  fortieth  days, 
and  one  year  after  the  burial.      When  the  tomb  was  a  cave  or 

•  Lane,  Modem  Egyptians,  vol.  ii,  pp.  288,  289. 


124  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

dug  out  from  some  rock,  the  entrance  was  often  closed  by  a 
large  round  stone  set  up  on  its  edge,  and  rolled  in  a  groove  in 
front  of  the  mouth  of  the  tomb,  so  as  to  close  it.  This  stone 
could  also  be  secured  by  a  strap  and  sealed.  In  that  case  it 
would  be  known  if  the  stone  had  been  disturbed.  Thus, 
Pilate  directed  that  the  tomb  of  Joseph,  in  which  the  body  of  our 
Lord  was  laid,  should  be  closed  and  sealed,  and  made  as  secure 
as  the  officials  were  able  to  make  it.  "  So  they  went,  and  made 
the  sepulchre  sure,  sealing  the  stone,  the  guard  being  with 
them."' 

1 86.  Tear  Bottles. — Another  Oriental  custom  is  the  use  of 
tear  botdes,  to  gather  and  preserve  the  tears  of  the  mourners. 
This  custom  prevailed  in  recent  times  in  portions  of  Persia 
and  in  parts  of  Polynesia.  Thus,  Morier  notes  that  in  Persia, 
"In  some  of  their  mournful  assemblies,  a  priest  goes  about  to 
each  person,  at  the  height  of  his  grief,  vnth.  a  piece  of  cotton  in 
his  hand,  with  which  he  carefully  collects  the  falling  tears,  and 
then  squeezes  them  into  a  botde,  preserving  them  with  great 

caution Some  persons  believe  that  when  all  medicines  have 

failed,  a  drop  of  tears,  so  collected,  put  into  the  mouth  of  the 
dying,  has  been  kno^vn  to  revive  him."  The  tears  are  also 
used  as  a  charm  to  ward  oj6f  evil.  This  practice  was  once  more 
widely  common  than  at  present.  For  tear  botdes  are  found  in 
many  of  the  ancient  tombs  in  Egypt  and  elsewhere  throughout 
the  East.  This  custom  appears  to  be  alluded  to  by  the  Psalm- 
ist, "Put  thou  my  tears  into  thy  bottle." ^ 

187.  Yearly  Mourning. — The  violent  demonstration  of  grief 
in  the  East  goes  so  far  as  sometimes  to  lead  to  lacerations  of 
the  body  and  a  shedding  of  blood.  Thus  a  modem  traveler 
describes  a  celebration  taking  place  annually  in  Persia  to  com- 
memorate the  death  of  the  grandson  of  the  prophet  Mohammed: 
"I  have  seen  the  most  violent  of  them,  as  they  vociferated  Ya 
H ossein!  walk  about  the  streets  almost  naked,  with  only  their 
loins  covered,  and  their  bodies  streaming  vdth  blood  by  the 
voluntary  cuts  they  have  given  to  themselves,  either  as  acts  of 

•Matt.  27  :66.  *  Ps.  56:8. 


MOURNING   AND   BURIALS.  1 25 

love,  anguish,  or  mortification."  A  similar  custom  was  found 
by  missionary  Ellis  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.*  Beating  their 
breasts  in  cadence  to  the  chanting  of  one  who  stood  in  the 
center  of  the  circle,  and  with  whom  they  now  and  then  joined 
their  voices  in  chorus,  is  a  universal  act  in  mourning.  The 
breast  is  made  bare  for  that  purpose  by  unbuttoning  the  top 
of  the  undergarment. 

188.  Cutting  Forbidden,  Wailing. — Cutting  of  the  flesh  for 
the  dead  was  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law.^  Excessive  wailing 
and  mourning  for  the  dead  seem  to  be  often  alluded  to  in  Scrip- 
ture. Thus,  Da\dd  rent  his  clothes,  and  mourned,  and  wept, 
and  fasted  for  Saul  and  for  Jonathan.^  And  the  Psalmist 
breaks  out,  "  I  am  wearied  with  my  groaning;  every  night 
make  I  my  bed  to  swim;  I  water  my  couch  with  my  tears,"  and 
again,  "rivers  of  water  run  down  mine  eyes."  *  And  the 
prophet,  seeing  the  destruction  of  his  people,  exclaims,  "For 
these  things  I  weep;  mine  eye,  mine  eye  runneth  down  with 
v/ater,"  and  again,  "Mine  eye  runneth  down  with  rivers  of 
water  for  the  destruction  of  the  daughter  of  my  people."  * 
And  because  he  could  not  find  expression  for  his  excessive  grief, 
he  again  exclaims,  "Oh  that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine 
eyes  a  fountain  of  tears,  that  I  might  weep  day  and  night  for  the 
slain  of  the  daughter  of  my  people."  ®  Perhaps  the  custom  of 
dirge  songs  may  also  be  alluded  to  when  the  ruler's  daughter 
was  believed  to  be  dead,  "Jesus  came  into  the  ruler's  house,  and 
saw  the  flute-players,  and  the  crowd  making  a  tumult."  ^  The 
funeral  procession,  similar  to  that  described  by  Lane,  where 
the  boy  singers  went  before  chanting  the  dirge,  is  alluded  to  in 
the  description  of  the  burial  of  Jacob.^ 

189.  Good  Burial,  Comfort. — Any  lack  of  proper  burial  is 
still  regarded  in  the  East,  as  in  ancient  times,  a  judgment  from 
God;  it  was  thought  the  greatest  calamity  that  could  come  to 
any  person.      They  are  still  greatly  distressed  lest  they  shall  not 

•  Morier,  Second  Journey  in  Persia,  176,  177. 

'Lev.  10  :  28;  21  :  s;  Deut.  14  :  i.  '2  Sam.  i  :  11,  12. 

<Ps.  6  :  6;  iiQ  :  136.  ^  Lam.  i  :  16;  3  :  48.  •  Jer.  9  :  i. 

'  Matt.  9  :  23;  Mark  s  :  38.  *  Gen.  50  :  6-13. 


126  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE   LANDS, 

receive  a  suitable  burial,  according  to  their  respective  customs. 
Even  to  this  day,  so  deep-seated  is  this  feeling  that  the  China- 
man is  accustomed  to  secure  a  coffin,  when  still  young,  and  keep 
it  in  his  house  as  a  sacred  treasure  against  the  day  of  his  death. 
This  Oriental  sentiment  is  repeatedly  alluded  to  and  used  as 
an  illustration  to  enforce  spiritual  teaching  in  the  Scriptures. 
It  was  one  of  the  severe  denunciations  of  Jezebel,  that  "the 
dogs  shall  eat  Jezebel  in  the  portion  of  Jezreel,  and  there  shall 
be  none  to  bury  her."  ^  And  the  prophet  breaks  out  in  denun- 
ciation, thus,  "Thou  art  cast  forth  away  from  thy  sepulchre 
like  an  abominable  branch,  clothed  with  the  slain,  that  are  thmst 
through  with  the  sword,  that  go  down  to  the  stones  of  the  pit;  as 
a  dead  body  trodden  under  foot.  Thou  shalt  not  be  joined  with 
them  (Kings  of  nations,  who  sleep  in  glory)  in  burial."  ^  On 
the  other  hand,  it  was  the  constant  longing  of  the  patriarchs, 
kings,  and  prophets  of  old  that  they  should  find  a  final  rest- 
ing place  with  their  fathers  in  the  family  tomb.  This  hope 
gave  them  comfort  and  peace,  as  they  drew  near  to  the  end 
of  Ufe. 

•  2  Kings  9  :  lo.  '  Isa.  14  :  19,  20. 


XVIII. 


LAND   TENURE. 


190.  Tribal  Titles. — In  Oriental  countries  to-day  land  tenure 
is  of  almost  every  kind  known  in  the  civilized  world.  Thus  in 
Syria  there  are  broadly  three  kinds: 

1.  Ard  emiri — land  of  the  emir,  or  taxed  crown  land — be- 
longing to  the  Sultan  or  some  ruler.  This  includes  nearly  all 
large  fruitful  plains,  as  of  Jaffa,  Ramleh,  Esdraelon— land 
which  is  leased  to  individuals,  or  to  villagers  for  the  lifetime  of 
the  lessor  at  nominally  a  rental  of  one-tenth  of  the  produce. 

2.  Ard  wakr/f—glehe  land — left  to  mosques,  holy  places,  and 
religious  orders.  It  cannot  be  sold,  but  is  leased,  and  is  in 
charge  of  a  niutaweh — bailiff  who  retains  a  share  (sometimes 
the  lion's  share)  of  the  tithes  for  himself.  Thus,  Effendis  often 
"eat  up"  the  people. 

3.  Ard  ynidk — or  freehold  land — usually  small  pieces  of 
ground  near  villages,  often  fig  and  olive  orchards,  gardens,  and 
vineyards.     Lands  thus  held  can  be  sold  or  exchanged. 

There  are  also  other  kinds  of  land,  such  as  ard  bawr,  or  fallow 
land — chiefly  in  the  hill  districts,  of  a  poor  quality;  and  also 
ard  majhule — dead  land,  which  has  not  been  cultivated  for 
years,  but  is  sometimes  reclaimed  and  put  under  cultivation; 
it  then  usually  becomes  the  rmdk  "freehold"  of  the  reclaimer; 
and  third,  arddi  majhule,  which  means  "unknown  land," 
because  deserted  and  left  vacant,  either  by  the  death  of  some 
owner  or  by  his  sudden  disappearance,  leaving  behind  the  land, 
with  debts  and  taxes,  in  which  case  it  usually  reverts  to  the 
government.' 

191.  Personal  Titles. — In  the  distant  mountains  lands  are 
generally  owned  by  individuals  or  families,  not  by  the  commu- 
nity, as  a  rule.    This  ownership  reaches  only  as  far  as  the  village 

1  F.  A.  Klein,  P:il.  Fund  Qiwr..  1883,  p.  41  ff- 

127 


128-  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

lands.  Even  on  some  of  the  plains,  lands  belonging  to  the  in- 
habitants before  1872  were  not  held  by  deed,  but  by  tradition, 
which  gave  a  qualified  ownership  until  a  stranger  came  to  oust 
the  possessor.  On  the  plains  of  Sharon  and  Philistia  the  vil- 
lagers were  usually  co-proprietors  of  lands,  but  when  the  new 
law  of  deeds  came  the  poorer  classes  denied  o^vning  any  land 
in  order  to  avoid  paying  the  cost  of  the  deed,  and  were  either 
deprived  of  it,  or  sold  their  right  for  a  trifle. 

Lands  belonging  to  mosques,  churches,  and  welys  are  exten- 
sive; the  leases  of  them  being  valuable,  and  the  income  or  rental 
being  used  to  maintain  the  expenses  of  these  buildings  and  in- 
stitutions. Thus,  the  Haram  of  Hebron  is  one  of  the  richest 
land  owners  in  Palestine.  The  lands  are  expected  to  give  one- 
fifth  of  the  entire  revenue  to  the  support  of  the  Haram. 

192.  Buying  Land.— In  Syria  the  fellahin,  or  peasants,  buy 
and  sell  lands,  gixmg  such  lease-hold  tide  as  they  may  possess, 
but  they  must  contract  for  their  relations  to  desist  from  their 
"right  of  redemption,"  a  right  which  constructively  still  exists, 
as  in  the  days  of  the  old  prophet.^  The  story  of  Abraham 
buying  Machpelah  of  the  Sheikh  Ephron  and  of  the  tribe  of  Heth, 
is  a  scene  often  repeated  in  the  East  to-day.  The  o^vne^,  with 
a  conspicuous  Oriental  show  of  boundless  generosity,  would  not 
deign  to  accept  pay  for  such  a  trifle  as  a  bit  of  land  and  a  cave 
for  a  stranger  to  bur}'  his  dead!  Take  it  as  a  present!  But 
the  other  native  Sheikh  would,  likewise  in  his  turn,  stand  upon 
his  dignity,  as  Abraham  did,  and  insist  upon  paying  for  the  land, 
giving  four  hundred  shekels  of  silver  by  weight,  and  thus 
he  bought  the  field,  the  cave,  and  all  the  trees,  the  people  of 
Hetii  witnessing  to  the  purchase  at  the  gate  of  the  city.^  It 
was  needful  especially  to  name  the  trees,  and  all  the  trees,  in 
this  Oriental  purchase,  otherwise  there  might  have  been  trouble. 
Prof.  Post,  of  Beirut,  bought  a  piece  of  land  in  the  Lebanon 
Mountains,  but  a  venerable  oak  was  not  included  in  the  pur- 
chase, nor  the  path  thereto.     He  was  compelled  to  make  a  new 

'  See  Jer.  32  :  8.    J.  G.  Baldensperger,  P.  F.  Q.,  1906,  p.  192  £F. 
'Gen.  33. 


LAND   TENURE.  129 

path,  to  that  oak,  and  agree  to  keep  the  path  open  forever  to  the 
public.  In  large  tracts  owTied  by  the  government  the  peasants 
or  farmers  become  tenants.  They  may  not  be  liable  to  eviction 
and  may  sell  their  privileges,  but  are  not  owners  in  fee  simple  of 
the  land.  The  taxes  are  farmed  out  and  collected  by  aid  of 
soldiers,  which  proves  an  odious  form  of  tyranny.  "The  crops 
cannot  be  measured  until  threshed  out  and  winnowed  in  heaps 
on  a  threshing  floor.  The  farmers  are  forced  to  leave  their 
harvest  exposed  to  birds,  insects,  rats,  and  other  vermin,  and 
to  the  depredation  of  thieves,  and  the  danger  [not  great]  of 
showers  until  the  government  officer  chooses  to  come  and 
measure  out  the  grain.  The  oflEicer  has  the  power  to  quarter  his 
horsemen  and  other  animals  without  compensation  on  the 
poor  villagers,  who  are  glad  to  buy  him  off  and  get  rid  of  him  by 
paying  tvy^o-tenths  or  more."  There  are  large  portions  of  land 
upon  the  deserts,  or  more  strictly  uninhabited  regions,  upon 
which  wandering  tribes  of  Arabs  pasture  their  flocks  and  their 
herds,  as  in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs. 

193.  Allotted  Land. — The  land  of  Canaan  M^as  allotted  to 
Israel  by  tribes;  Jehovah  was  the  primal  owner.  No  tribe  or 
family  could  alienate  his  land,  except  for  a  period  and  in  special 
cases.  It  must  be  retained  in  the  family,  and  if  alienated  for 
a  time,  it  came  back  on  the  year  of  Jubilee.  This  throws 
light  on  the  story  of  Ahab  and  Naboth.*  The  law  of  inherit- 
ance varies  in  different  Oriental  nations,  but  generally  the  eldest 
son  is  the  chief  heir. 

194.  Climate  and  Soil. — In  physical  features  Palestine,  Syria, 
and  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula  form  the  geographical  meeting  point 
of  the  three  great  continents  of  the  East.  The  same  region 
has  been  the  pivotal  point  of  national  contests,  the  scene  of  great 
decisive  battles,  the  highway  for  the  marching  forces  of  the 
mighty  empires  and  monarchies  of  Old  Babylonia  and  Egypt, 
whose  immense  military  hosts  for  ages  swept  over  and  often 
desolated  these  lands  in  which  Biblical  history  and  interest 
have  centered. 

'  I  Kings  21  ;  1-16. 

9 


130  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  climate  of  Syria  has  a  wide  range,  from  the  torrid  heat 
in  the  depressed  Jordan  Valley  to  the  cool,  ever  snow-capped 
mountains  of  Hermon  and  of  the  Anti-Lebanon. 

The  soil  of  the  plains  by  the  sea  is  a  rich  brown  loam,  with 
sand  behind  the  promontories  and  capes.  The  terraced  moun- 
tain sides  yield  figs  and  olives  at  an  altitude  from  twenty-five 
hundred  to  five  thousand  feet.  Coele-Syria  is  supposed  to  be 
largely  the  bed  of  an  ancient  lake,  and  is  of  black  loam  soil  of 
great  fertility. 

The  water  supply  of  Syria  is  well  suited  for  storage  and  for 
irrigation.  It  can  easily  be  artificially  distributed  over  large 
portions  of  Palestine  and  Syria.  When  this  is  done,  Palestine 
may  again  become  a  garden — a  land  ''flowing  with  milk  and 
honey." 


XIX. 


ORIENTAL  OCCUPATIONS  AND   PROFESSIONS. 

195.  Tent  Life  and  Herds. — An  ideal  occupation  for  life  to  the 
Oriental  is  resting  in  the  door  of  his  tent  and  contemplating 
his  possessions.  He  reckons  his  wealth,  not  in  lands  and  houses 
nor  in  bonds  and  securities,  but  in  camels,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats.  Travelers  in  Oriental  lands  still  charm  us  with  glowing 
descriptions  of  the  simple  and  free  Hfe  of  the  picturesque  tribes, 
wandering  over  desert  and  plain,  in  that  great  continent  where 
the  human  race  wandered  when  it  was  yet  young.  Camps  of 
the  Bedouins  now  dot  the  plain,  with  their  many  tents,  spreading 
over  an  immense  space  of  ground.  Groups  of  camels  may  be 
seen  standing  lazUy,  with  herds  of  cattie,  and  flocks  of  goats 
and  sheep,  and  spirited  Arabian  steeds,  seeming  to  swarm  upon 
the  plain,  mingling  with  groups  of  hooded  or  turbaned  Arabs, 
who  watch  and  attend  them.  Often  these  flocks  and  herds  are 
scattered  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  over  the  plain,  grazing  on  the 
fine  pasture  or  foraging  upon  the  scanty  herbage — a  panorama 
of  Oriental  life  worth  journeying  thousands  of  miles  to  behold. 
For  this  same  scene  has  repeated  itself  generation  after  genera- 
tion in  this  region  for  more  than  four  thousand  years,  and  ever 
since  the  days  of  Abraham  and  the  patriarchs  of  earliest  Hebrew 
history.  On  these  plains  are  re-enacted  over  and  over  again  in 
our  time  the  strife  that  took  place  between  the  herdsmen  of 
Abram  and  Lot  from  lack  of  ample  pasture  and  water  for  herds 
and  flocks.^ 

196.  Edejiic  Picture.— The  occupation  of  the  primitive  man, 
as  pictured  by  the  sacred  writer  is,  "Jehovah  God  took  the  man, 
and  put  him  into  the  garden  of  Eden  to  dress  it  and  to  keep  it."  - 
Or,  literally,  it  reads,  "Jehovah  Almighty  took  the  man  and 
caused  him  to  rest  in  the  garden  of  pleasantness  to  till  it  and  to 

>  Gen.  13  :  S"".  '  Gen.  2  :  15. 

131 


132  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

preserve  it."  This  implies  that  without  man's  care  the  plants, 
flowers,  and  trees  of  that  early  age  would  have  degenerated,  or 
would  have  been  less  perfect  without  the  training  of  the  hand  of 
man.  It  also  implies  that  the  garden  needed  a  protector  to 
preserve  it  or  keep  it.  Possibly  the  animals  were  not  all  so 
peaceful  as  we  are  wont  to  imagine  they  were,  nor  so  careful 
to  restrain  themselves  from  depredations,  even  in  this  Edenic 
state. 

197.  Two  Occupations. — But  whatever  we  may  infer  from 
this  narrative,  the  picture  here  drawn  is  tinged  with  strong 
Oriental  color.  The  naming  of  the  cattle,  of  the  birds  of  the 
air,  and  of  the  beasts  of  the  field  are  characteristic  of  Oriental 
life  of  to-day.  The  sacred  account  further  tells  us  that  when 
man  left  the  garden  and  his  state  of  innocence  he  took  up  two 
leading  occupations;  "Abel  was  a  keeper  of  sheep,"  but  his 
elder  brother  "Cain  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground."  ^  These  con- 
tinue to  be  two  of  the  leading  occupations  among  Orientals  to 
this  day.  In  the  professions  and  in  scientific  discovery  the  chil- 
dren of  Cain  seem  to  have  been  leaders,  one  of  them  "  was  the 
father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents  and  have  cattle";  another  "was 
the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  pipe  " ;  and  still 
another  was  the  "instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  ^ 
Cain  was  the  elder  son.  Abel  met  Vtith  an  untimely  death,  and 
perhaps  years  elapsed  before  Seth  and  his  descendants  came  to 
maturity,  hence  the  early  development  of  Cain  and  his  children 
in  the  arts,  sciences,  and  professions.  The  sacred  writer  seems 
here  to  represent  the  occupation  and  professions  of  primitive 
man,  the  earliest  mentioned  in  the  annals  of  history. 

1 98.  Oriental  Farmers. — The  chief  occupation  of  the  fellahin, 
or  peasants,  of  Syria  is  farming.  Sometimes  they  go  into  part- 
nership with  the  wandering  tribes.  The  nomad  Arabs  raise 
horses  and  camels,  while  the  villagers  or  peasants  till  the  ground 
and  raise  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle.  Crops  of  grain-lands  are 
gathered  every  other  year,  the  ground  being  left  fallow  on  each 
alternate  year,  that  it  may  recover  itself.     Wheat,  barley,  and 

'  Gen.  4:2.  ^  Gen.  4  :  30-22. 


ORIENTAL   OCCUPATIONS   AND   PROFESSIONS.  1 33 

spelt  (rye,  A.  V.)  are  the  most  common  grains  raised  in  Pales- 
tine to-day.  Oats  are  little  kno\\Ti  to  the  peasants  of  Palestine. 
The  Oriental  farmer  lives  in  villages  or  hamlets,  and  not  se- 
questered and  alone  upon  his  farm.  This  is  necessary  for 
safety  and  protection  from  wandering  bands  of  robbers  and 
lawless  brigands. 

199.  Grain. — Besides  wheat,  barley,  and  a  kind  of  millet, 
there  is  a  great  variety  of  other  grains  and  grasses,  such  as  clover, 
vetches,  fitches,  lentils,  rice;  and  in  later  times  maize  and  oats 
have  been  introduced  into  some  portions  of  Northern  Syria. 
All  kinds  of  vegetables,  and  many  kinds  of  fruits,  as  oranges, 
lemons,  citrons,  pomegranates,  plums,  grapes,  figs,  apricots, 
peaches,  nectarines,  pears,  and  quinces,  with  the  blackberry, 
strawberry,  gooseberry,  myrtle  berry,  and  mulberry;  also 
olives,  dates,  and  bananas  are  usually  abundant  in  the  East. 
Of  nuts,  besides  walnuts,  filberts,  and  almonds,  the  pistachio 
is  common,  with  a  great  variety  of  aromatic  plants  and  sweet- 
scented  flowers,  the  rose,  the  lily,  and  the  anemone,  violet,  pop- 
pies, mustard,  mallows,  caraway,  dill,  fennel,  mint,  thyme;  and 
of  trees  for  shade  and  timber  the  terebinth,  oak,  sumach, 
maple,  shittim,  plane,  pine,  cedar,  fir,  Cyprus,  juniper,  and  carob 
tree. 

200.  The  Farms. — In  the  East  farms,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
divided  by  fences  or  even  hedges.  The  extent  of  a  farm  is 
marked  by  a  path  or  a  line  of  stones.  This  custom  has  come 
down  through  the  ages.  In  olden  times  a  curse  was  pronounced 
against  one  "that  removeth  his  neighbour's  landmark."  ^  The 
farmer  now  sometimes  divides  his  land  into  three  parts:  one 
portion  is  for  pasture,  another  is  sown  with  grain,  and  the  re- 
maining portion,  which  is  cultivated  one  year,  is  left  fallow  the 
next  year  for  recuperation.  These  portions  may  be  marked 
off  from  one  another  by  a  path.  These  paths  across  lands 
were  evidendy  common  in  our  Lord's  day.  For  in  the  parable 
of  the  sower,  he  says,  "Some  seeds  fell  by  the  way  side,  and  the 
birds  came  and  devoured  them."  ^ 

'  Deut.  27  :  17.  '  Matt.  13  :  4. 


134  orientalisms  in  bible  lands. 

Seed-time  and  Harvest. 

201.  Sowing. — The  season  for  sowing  depends  on  the  time 
of  the  "former"  or  winter  rains.^ 

The  "latter"  rain  comes  during  our  April  or  May,  and  is 
needful  to  perfect  the  growth  of  the  grain.  Thus,  while  the 
former  rains  in  November  or  December  are  often  heavy  showers, 
washing  the  lands  and  swelling  the  streams,  and  are  good  for 
the  fruits,  the  latter  rains  are  necessary  for  bringing  wheat, 
barley,  and  spelt  to  perfection.  Hence,  both  the  former  and 
latter  rains  were  symbols  of  abundant  harvests  and  great 
prosperity."     This  refers  specially  to  Syria. 

202.  Life  Work. — In  some  Oriental  lands  the  plowman,  or 
farmer,  is  a  farmer  for  life.  A  merchant,  a  soldier,  or  a  man 
of  a  trade  might  change  his  employment  for  a  livelihood,  but  a 
farmer,  once  a  plowman  or  tiller  of  the  soil,  is  a  farmer  for  life. 
So  the  Oriental  would  see  great  force  in  the  proverb,  "No  man, 
having  put  his  hand  to  the  plough,  and  lookmg  back,  is  fit  for 
the  kingdom  of  God."  ^  That  is,  as  a  farmer  could  not  forsake 
his  plow  and  retain  his  good  reputation,  so  could  not  a  disciple, 
having  entered  upon  a  Christian  life,  turn  back  and  find  him- 
self fit  for  the  kingdom.  The  plowing  is  sometimes  done  be- 
fore the  grain  is  sowed,  but  oftentimes,  when  the  land  is  not 
overgrown  with  weeds,  the  seed  is  first  sovm  and  then  is  ploughed 
in. 

203.  TJie  Plow.— The  Oriental  plow  is  a  very  primitive  im- 
plement. That  used  in  Oriental  lands  to-day  closely  resembles 
similar  ones  represented  on  the  old  monuments  thousands  of 
years  ago.  It  now  consists  of  a  flat,  wooden  share,  pointed  at 
the  end,  without  any  earth-board.  When  the  point  is  of  broad 
iron,  it  is  bent  up  on  the  sides,  and  the  wooden  standard  is 
fixed  into  the  rounded  iron  like  a  heavy  staff.  The  top  of  the 
staff  has  a  cross  piece,  by  which  the  farmer  holds  and  guides 
his  rude  instrument.     A  long  beam  or  stick  is  fastened  to  the 

'  Deut.  II  :  14;  Jer.  5  :  24;   14  :  4;  Hosea  6  :  3;  Joel  2  :  23- 

»  Job.  29  :  33;  Prov.  16  :  15;  Jer.  3  :  3;  Zech.  10  :  i.  '  Luke  0  •  oa. 


ORIENTAL   OCCUPATIONS   AND   PROFESSIONS.  I35 

upright,  projecting  forward,  and  that  is  again  spliced  or  pieced 
at  the  further  end  with  another  stick,  that  often  bends  down- 
ward and  passes  between  the  catde.  At  tlie  end  of  this  there 
is  a  pin  to  hold  the  ring  of  the  yoke  from  slipping  off.  The 
yoke  is  a  rude  stick,  often  not  hollowed,  to  fit  the  neck  of  the 
cattle.  It  has  two  straight  sticks  projecting  down  on  each  side, 
and  the  yoke  is  held  on  the  neck  by  a  string  at  the  end  of  these 
sticks  and  underneath  the  neck  of  the  cattle.  A  plow  for  a 
single  ox  is  lighter  than  one  made  for  a  pair  of  cattle.  The 
plowman  has  a  long  goad  or  stick,  with  a  spike  at  one  end, 
shovel  shaped  at  the  other.  The  sharp  point  is  to  prod  his 
cattle  and  the  other  end  is  used  to  clean  the  rude  share  of  the 
plow. 

There  are  frequent  allusions  to  the  iron  share  of  the  plow, 
which  by  a  little  change  could  be  beaten  into  a  sword  for  de- 
fense. Thus,  the  prophet  urges  men  of  war,  "Beat  your  plow- 
shares into  swords,  and  your  pruninghooks  into  spears."  ^ 
Times  of  peace  are  predicted  by  a  reverse  prophecy  when  men 
were  exhorted  to  "Beat  their  swords  into  plowshares,  and  their 
spears  into  pruninghooks."^  Such  a  rude  instrument  only 
scratched  the  soil.  Oxen  are  generally  used  now  for  ploughing, 
sometimes  asses  or  donkeys,  rarely  camels  or  horses.  In  olden 
time  the  law  forbid  plowing  with  an  ox  and  an  ass  yoked  together.' 
The  sower  takes  his  seed  to  the  field  now  on  the  back  of  the 
donkey  in  a  large  sack  and  the  light  plow  is  also  hung  on  the  same 
animal.  He  has  a  leather  bag  under  his  arm,  which  he  fills  with 
seed  from  the  sack,  and  carefully  sows  it  broadcast,  as  he  walks 
along,  and  the  plow  dra^vn  by  the  oxen  turns  the  soU  over  the 
seed.  Sometimes  the  ground  may  be  previously  made  soft  by 
plowing;  sometimes  the  ground  is  harrowed  without  plowing,  as 
in  the  prophet's  time.  (See  Isaiah  28  :  25.)  If  the  ground  is 
very  wet,  the  grain  may  be  trodden  in  by  the  feet  of  animals. 
This  is  alluded  to  in  Isaiah  32  :  20.  In  Egypt  the  grain  is 
sometimes  scattered  on  the  overflowing  waters  of  the  Nile  as 
they  are  settiing,  so  that  the  seed  sinks  into  the  soft  mud  when 

'  Jod  3:9.  '  Isa.  2  :  4;  Micah  4:3.  '  Dc ul.  3 "  •  10. 


136  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

the  water  recedes.  Barley  is  sown,  in  Palestine  usually  some- 
time in  October  or  November,  before  the  winter  rain  sets  in, 
and  wheat  a  little  later. 

204.  Barley  Harcest. — The  barley  harvest  comes  earliest, 
usually  about  the  last  of  March  or  April,  varying  according  to 
the  season  and  the  altitude.  Thus,  in  the  Jordan  Valley, 
harvest  would  be  nearly  a  month  earlier  than  upon  the  table- 
lands about  Jerusalem  or  upon  the  higher  lands  in  the  north  of 
Syria.  While  the  grain  is  growing,  or  less  than  half  grown,  it  is 
counted  ''good  luck"  among  the  Arabs  and  peasants  to  have 
a  path  made  through  it.  The  Oriental  farmer  now,  as  of  olden 
time,  must  be  careful  to  have  good  seed  in  sowing  wheat.  If 
he  finds  tare  seed  mixed  \\ith  his  wheat,  he  must  carefully 
separate  the  tares  or  he  will  have  a  poor  crop.  The  tare  seed  is 
in  shape  like  half  of  a  kernel  of  barley.  It  is  bitter  in  taste. 
If  even  barley  bread  is  mixed  v^ith  tares,  the  person  who  eats  it 
becomes  sick,  dizzy,  and  drowsy,  as  if  he  had  taken  a  small 
quantity  of  poison.  The  stalk  of  the  tare  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  wheat.  Now,  when  a  farmer  finds  tares  springing 
up  in  the  wheat,  he  waits  until  it  is  five  or  six  inches  high,  and 
then  women,  children,  and  laborers  enter  the  field  to  pull  out  the 
tares.  When  told  of  the  parable  of  the  wheat  and  tares,  and 
asked  why  they  do  not  leave  the  wheat  undisturbed  to  harvest, 
they  say,  it  is  easier  to  remove  the  tares  at  this  period  if  they  are 
few,  but  if  the  tares  were  abundant,  then  it  would  be  no  doubt 
safer  to  allow  the  two  to  grow  together  until  the  harvest.^ 

205.  Htinger  Limit. — Wnen  the  grain  is  nearly  ripe,  it  is  still 
a  custom,  as  of  old,  to  allow  persons  passing  to  break  off  the 
heads,  rub  them  in  their  hands,  and  eat  them  to  satisfy  their 
personal  hunger.^  But  to  this  day,  should  a  native  or  a  traveler 
allow  his  beast  to  eat  any  of  the  grain,  he  would  find  himself  in 
trouble  at  once.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  of  Palestine  even  to- 
day is  shown  by  abundant  testimony  of  natives  and  of  tourists. 
Thus,  Mr,  Haddad  says,  "I  know  of  some  plantations  in  Galilee 
where  from  thirty  to  three  hundred  fold  is  produced  when  not 

•  Matt.  13  :  27-30.  *  Matt.  12  :  i;  Mark  a  :  23;  Luke  6  :  i;  Dcut.  23  :  25. 


ORIENTAL   OCCUPATIONS   AND   PROFESSIONS.  I37 

injured  by  storms,  extreme  cold,  or  drought.  A  man  planted  one 
bushel  of  barley  in  a  piece  of  land  belonging  to  me,  and  the 
yield  was  one  hundred  and  forty-four  bushels.  The  richest  farms 
now  are  in  Galilee  and  Hauran  (Bashan-land)  east  of  Galilee." 
As  in  the  days  of  our  Lord,  so  now,  the  sower,  scattering  his 
seed,  finds  that  some  fall  by  the  wayside  in  the  paths,  some  on 
rocky  places,  where  the  soil  is  thin,  some  among  the  thorns 
which  grow  over  the  paths  or  by  the  side  of  them,  while  other 
seed  falls  on  good  ground.  The  birds,  such  as  larks,  come  in 
flocks,  to  eat  the  seed  on  the  hard  path.  The  hot  sun  wilts 
the  young  sprouts  on  the  thin  rock  soil,  and  the  thorns  and  nettles 
spring  up  to-day  and  choke  the  farmer's  wheat  and  barley  as 
they  did  two  thousand  years  ago. 

206.  Time  of  Harvests. — Barley  harvest  often  comes  early, 
as  it  did  near  Bethlehem  in  the  time  of. Ruth  and  Boaz.^  The 
wheat  harvest  comes  a  few  weeks  later  usually,  and  is  the 
occasion  of  great  rejoicing  if  it  is  abundant.  So,  if  the  barley 
harvest  came  about  the  time  of  the  Passover,  the  wheat  harvest 
would  come  nearly  a  month  after  it.  At  the  present  time  it 
may  be  said  generally  that  the  barley  harvest  in  the  Jordan 
Valley  is  sometimes  as  early  as  March  or,  under  Mount  Hermon, 
it  may  be  as  late  as  May.  Dr.  Tristram  speaks  of  having 
eaten  bread  at  Jericho  in  the  end  of  March  which  was  made 
from  barley  sown  in  the  pre\dous  December. 

207.  'M  Barley  Cake." — There  is  an  interesting  speech  com- 
mon among  the  Arabs  of  to-day,  who  contemptuously  call  a  peas- 
ant who  tills  the  soil  a  "barley  cake."  This  may  throw  light  on 
the  dream  of  the  Midianite,  who  thought  a  cake  of  barley 
rolled  into  his  camp  and  overturned  a  tent."  The  wheat  in 
Palestine  is  said  to  have  a  somewhat  larger  head  than  the 
wheat  which  grows  in  America.  There  is  another  variety 
grovm  in  Egypt,  called  "mummy  wheat,"  not  found  in  Pales- 
tine. Grapes  and  figs  are  commonly  gathered  in  August;  so 
common  is  this  that  the  natives  often  designate  the  season  of 
the  year  by  saying,   "in  grapes  "  instead  of  "in  August." 

'  Ruth  2  :  17,  23.  *  Judges  7  :  13,  14. 


138  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

The  mandrake  apples  also  are  found  usually  between  the 
wheat  harvest  and  August.  The  seeds  of  these  if  eaten  are 
said  to  make  persons  crazy.  The  pomegranates  are  ripe  in 
September,  while  other  fruits  mature  and  gather  the  largest 
crop  late  in  October  or  in  winter. 

208.  Sowing  and  Reaping  Together. — So  varied  is  the  climate 
in  Palestine  and  Syria  that  plowing,  sousing,  and  reapmg  may 
be  all  going  on  at  nearly  the  same  time.  You  may  see  a  peasant 
planting  one  field,  while  nearby  is  another  ready  to  enter 
upon  harvesting  his  crop.  Thus,  it  is  true,  as  it  was  twenty- 
five  hundred  years  ago,  "the  plowman  shall  overtake  the 
reaper,  the  treader  of  grapes  him  that  soweth  seed."^ 

Nor  was  that  an  imaginary,  but  a  real  scene,  which  our  Lord 
used  with  his  disciples:  "Say  not  ye,  there  are  yet  four  months, 
and  then  cometh  the  harvest  ?  behold,  I  say  unto  you,  Lift  up 
your  eyes,  and  look  on  the  fields;  for  they  are  white  already 
to  harvest."  ^  A  similar  real  scene  has  been  looked  on  by  many 
a  modem  tourist  over  the  plains  near  Samaria.  Early  in  April, 
near  Jacob's  well,  a  traveler  tells  of  seeing  grain  well  ripened 
for  harvest,  and  just  southward  and  also  northward  of  it, 
plowing  and  planting  were  going  on. 

209.  Two  Seasons. — The  reader  must  not  forget  that  in 
Oriental  lands,  ol  which  we  are  speaking,  there  are  practically 
but  two  seasons,  and  not  four,  as  with  us.  The  two  seasons  are 
the  rainy  or  winter  season,  and  the  summer  or  dry  season; 
for  from  April  or  May  until  October  it  rarely  rains  in  Syria. 
This  is  true  now  as  in  the  days  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  when 
the  people  were  alarmed  at  a  thunder  storm  in  wheat  harvest.' 

It  is  very  remarkable  now  to  have  a  shower  of  any  kind  in 
harvest.  The  barley  harvest  is  usually  about  Passover  time 
(our  Easter).  The  wheat  harvest  is  later,  followed  by  the 
feast  of  weeks,  or  of  harvest  or  firstfruits,  seven  weeks  after 
the  Passover,  hence  the  name  Pentecost,  "fiftieth"  day.* 

210.  Reaping. — Reaping  in  Oriental  lands  is  chiefly  with 

'  Amos.  9:13.  '  John  4  :  35.  '  i  Saro.  ri  :  17,  18. 

*  Lev.  33  :  15,  16;  Ex.  23  :  16;  Num.  28  :  r6. 


ORIENTAL   OCCUPATIONS   AND   PROFESSIONS.  1 39 

the  sickle.^  The  Oriental  sickle  is  of  three  kinds  or  sizes, 
much  like  the  sickle  in  use  with  us.  But  vetches  are  pulled 
up,  put  in  heaps,  and  carried  away  in  bundles  on  donkeys  or 
camels.  IMaundrell  saw  this  on  the  way  from  Aleppo,  re- 
minding him  of  Jehovah's  words:  "Then  will  I  pluck  them 
up  by  the  roots."^  Compare  also  Eccl.  3:  2,  with  Ezek.  17 :  9, 
and  with  the  Psalmist's  words:  "Let  them  be  as  the  grass  upon 
the  housetops,  which  withereth  before  it  groweth  up."  ^  Al- 
lusions to  sowing  and  reaping  abound  in  Scripture;  thus, 
"They  that  sow  in  tears  shall  reap  in  joy."*  "They  sow  the 
wind,  and  they  shall  reap  the  whirlwind."  "Sow  to  yourselves 
in  righteousness,  reap  according  to  kindness."*  "Sow  trouble 
[or  mischief],  reap  the  same."  ^  Proverbs  impressing  nature's 
inflexible  law,  that  as  we  sow,  so  shall  we  surely  reap,  are  cur- 
rent now  in  the  Orient  as  they  were  thousands  of  years  ago: 
"He  that  soweth  iniquity  shall  reap  calamity." '  "  Whatsoever 
a  man  soweth,  that  shall  he  also  reap."^ 

Reaping  barley — the  earliest  crop — opens  a  merry  season  in 
Palestine.  "The  entire  population  of  a  village  turns  out  into 
the  fields;  the  men  reap  and  the  women  glean,  the  children 
play  about,  and  the  cattle  crop  the  stubble.  Everyone  is  in 
good  spirits.  As  they  work  they  sing,  the  men  and  the  women 
responsively,  each  a  line  of  the  harvest  song.  At  noon  they 
may  stop  for  a  bit  of  bread,  dipped  into  a  salad,  just  as  the 
reapers  in  Ruth's  time  ate  and  dipped  the  'morsel  into  the 
vinegar.'" ' 

211.  Gleaning. — The  ancient  custom  of  leaving  some  grain  for 
the  poor  is  quite  rare  now  in  Oriental  lands,  but  it  is  not  wholly 
forgotten.  A  modem  resident  in  Syria  thus  describes  a  harvest 
scene:  "When  a  village  possesses  lands  in  common,  the 
inhabitants  go  there  and  build  huts,  and  live  there  for  several 
months  around  the  threshing-floor.  ...  All  the  women,  rich  or 
poor,  go  to  glean  behind  the  reapers.  ...  A  diligent  gleaner 

»  Joel  3  :  13.  «  2  Chron.  7  :  20.  '  Ps.  129  :  6. 

*  Ps.  126  :  s.  •  Hosca  8  :  7;  10  :  12.  '  Job.  4  :  8. 

*  Prov.  22  :S.  '  Gal.  6:7. 

*  Ruth  2  :  14.  (Bliss,  S.  S.  W.,  iqo7,  p.  430-) 


140  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

can  gather  more  wheat  than  would  be  her  usual  pay  for  a  day, 
especially  in  a  fertile  field  where  many  stalks  are  left."  "In 
the  plains  of  Philistia  the  gleaners  are  more  numerous  than 
the  reapers,"  says  one  observer,  "and  it  is  difficult  to  keep 
them  away  from  the  sheaves.  A  North  African  is  employed 
to  watch,  and  when  they  become  too  impertinent  to  remonstrate 
with  them;  but  'what  can  one  young  man  do  before  so  many 
young  women?'  Besides,  there  is  so  much  scolding  and  curs- 
ing, and  where  goes  the  blessing  ?  A  curse,  in  their  view,  invites 
the  genie  to  carry  away  food,  as  they  neither  sow  nor  reap, 
yet  v/ant  to  eat."  This  illustrates  Ruth  2 :  5,  where  Boaz  had 
a  servant  that  was  set  over  the  reapers  to  watch,  but  he  was 
commanded  to  allow  Ruth  to  glean  "even  among  the  sheaves."  * 
Modem  harvesters  in  the  Orient  have  a  like  trouble  to  pre- 
vent the  gleaners  wandering  among  the  sheaves.  Every  bad 
act  is  avoided  as  much  as  possible  before  "the  blessing." 
"The  gleanings  may  enable  a  widow  to  have  bread  enough 
for  the  winter,  and  in  case  of  married  women,  who  have  not 
to  harvest  for  themselves,  or  for  girls,  the  wheat  or  barley  is 
sold  or  changed  for  chickens,  pigeons,  or  oil.  These  are  the 
woman's  property."  ^ 

212.  Parched  Grain. — Robinson  saw  reapers  and  gleaners 
working  together,  and  eating  parched  grain  and  resting  together; 
the  stranger  was  courteously  invited  to  take  her  place  among 
them,  and  the  master  lying  down  "at  the  end  of  a  heap  of 
grain"  to  protect  it  against  thieves,  just  as  Boaz  lay  down. 
For  now  owners  of  crops  sleep  every  night  on  the  threshing- 
floor  during  grain  harvest  to  guard  the  heaps  of  grain.  This 
illustrates  the  allusions  in  Scripture  to  gleaning.^ 

213.  Threshing. — The  Oriental  threshing-floor  is  a  circular 
plat  of  ground,  sometimes  a  platform,  from  twenty  to  fifty  feet 
in  diameter.  It  may  be  bounded  by  a  coping  of  rough  stones. 
When  possible  the  top  of  a  flat  rock  is  preferred,  because  it 
would  be  free  from  mouse  holes  and  ants'  nests,  and  cleaner. 

•  Ruth  2  :  6,  15.  'Pal.  Fund.  Quar.,  1907,  p.  19. 

'  See  Lev.  19  :  9, 10;  23  :  22;  Deut.  24  :  21;  Judges  20  :  45;  Jer.  6  :  g;  49  :  o;  Micah  7  :  i. 


Oriental  Plowboy. 

{Vester  &■  Co.) 


P.    138 


Milr      \.i'    SlIKIMllJxli     in     >lill,    Wxil'K.  P.    174 

(Copyright  hy  Underwood  &  Underwood,  New  York.') 


ORIENTAL   OCCUPATIONS   AND   PROFESSIONS.  I4I 

Thus  the  rock  under  the  present  mosque  in  Jerusalenn  is  on 
the  site  of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  and  that  was  built  on  the 
ancient  site  of  the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah/  These  thresh- 
ing-floors were  sometimes  famous  landmarks;  thus  when 
Joseph  went  up  to  bury  his  father  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  they 
stopped  at  the  threshing-floor  of  Atad  to  moum.^  To  make 
a  threshing-floor,  the  loose  earth  was  first  scraped  away, 
and  the  ground  made  solid  by  pounding,  and  then  smoothed 
over  to  make  it  suSiciently  hard  and  suitable  for  the  threshing 
of  the  grain,  so  that  there  should  not  be  waste  or  loss  to  the 
farmer. 

214.  Ways  of  Threshing. — The  Oriental  has  three  ways  of 
threshing  grain:  (i)  With  a  staff  or  rod,  called  chabai,  as  in  the 
days  of  Gideon.^  (2)  With  cattle  driven  over  heaps  of  straw 
to  tread  out  the  grain.  This  method  is  still  common  in  Syria. 
Thus,  Robinson  saw  the  threshing-floors  piled  high  with 
sheaves  of  grain,  no  less  than  five  such  floors,  where  the  grain 
was  being  trodden  out  by  oxen,  cows,  and  young  cattle,  arranged 
five  abreast,  and  driven  round  in  a  circle,  or  rather  in  all 
directions  over  the  floor.*  We  know  that  this  way  of  threshing 
is  very  old,  from  the  command,  "Thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the 
ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  grain."  *  And  the  prophet  says, 
"Ephraim  is  a  heifer  .  .  .  that  loveth  to  tread  out  the  grain."* 
(3)  The  more  common  way  of  threshing  now  in  the  East  is 
with  a  drag  or  threshing  instrument.  The  drag  is  made  of 
planks,  like  the  old  American  stone  boat  used  on  mountain 
farms.  The  planks  are  bent  up  in  front  and  have  holes  in  the 
bottom.  Sharp  flints  or  stones  are  wedged  into  these  circular 
holes  in  the  bottom,  or  the  drag  may  have  rollers  under  it  v.ith 
cutting  wheels,  or  spikes,  which  tear  the  straw  into  bits,  and 
loose  the  kernels  of  grain.  This  drag  is  draMTi  by  a  pair  of 
oxen,  cows,  or  mules,  a  woman  or  a  boy  riding  on  the  drag, 
and  driving  the  animals  over  the  sheaves  of  grain.  "They 
go  round  and  round  the  floor  until  the  straw  is  all  cut  into 

'  2  Sam.  24  :  24.  '  Gen.  50  :  10.  '  Judges  6:1;  Isaiah  28  :  37. 

'Researches,  vol.  i,  p.  550.         'Deut.  25  : 4.  'Hosea  10  :  11. 


142  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   L.^NDS. 

bits  of  an  inch  or  two  in  length  by  the  sharp  edges  of  the  drag, 
and  the  kernels  of  grain  are  thoroughly  separated  from  the  straw. 
When  the  sheaves  are  threshed  a  fresh  layer  of  sheaves  is 
placed  on  the  threshing-floor,  and  the  threshing  repeated." 

215.  Treading  Grain. — Threshing  with  cattle  was  common 
in  other  Eastern  countries  than  Syria  in  the  last  century. 
Thus,  a  traveler  in  India  tells  of  seeing  the  treading  out  of 
grain  with  two  sets  of  oxen,  four  abreast,  the  one  set  following 
the  other  in  a  circle;  as  they  trod  out  the  grain  they  continued 
eating.  The  traveler  asked  the  man  why  they  allowed  the 
oxen  to  eat.  They  replied,  "It  is  contrary  to  our  shastrus  to 
muzzle  the  ox  that  treadeth  out  the  com."  Thus,  the  Mosaic 
command  has  its  counterpart  in  the  Buddhist  sacred  books, 
and  Hartley  speaks  of  seeing  horses  in  Greece  used  to  tread  out 
the  grain.  Lane  tells  of  a  threshing  instrument  "in  the  form 
of  a  chain,  which  moves  upon  small  iron  wheels  or  thin  circular 
plates,  generally  eleven,  fixed  to  three  axle  trees,  .  .  .  and  drawn 
in  a  circle  by  a  pair  of  cows,  or  bulls,  over  the  grain."  ^  Two 
travelers  in  the  last  century  saw  men  beating  out  grain  with  a 
staff  instead  of  a  flail. 

216.  Winnowing  and  Sifting. — The  grain  is  separated  from 
the  straw  and  chaff  by  being  tossed  up  in  the  air,  the  wind 
causing  the  mass  to  fall  into  three  separate  heaps,  the  grain 
being  the  heaviest,  fell  immediately  beneath  the  four-tined  fork, 
with  which  it  was  tossed  in  the  air.  The  straw  was  blovni  a 
little  to  one  side  into  a  heap,  while  the  dust  and  lighter  chaff  was 
carried  away  into  a  flattened  vrairow  beyond  the  straw.  One 
traveler,  who  watched  this  winnowing,  says,  "The  grain  was 
thrown  toward  that  side  from  which  the  wind  blows,  the 
ground  swept,  and  the  winnowing  shovel  or  fork  used  to  fling 
the  mass  into  the  air.  One  portion  of  the  grain,  quite  clean, 
is  removed;  another  portion,  still  mixed  with  some  chaff,  must 
go  through  a  second  winnowing  or  be  sifted  wdth  a  sieve." 
This  vdnnowing  the  grain  is  alluded  to  in  Psalms,  where  the 
wicked  are  said  to  be  like  chaff,  which  the  wind  carrieth  away. 

*  Lane,  II,  164. 


ORIENTAL  OCCUPATIONS   AND   PROFESSIONS.         143 

The  dust  which  is  blown  farthest  away  is  worthless,  and  the 
farmer  bums  it,  because  it  cannot  be  used  to  feed  the  cattle 
nor  for  any  other  good  purpose.  It  is  seldom  that  any  instru- 
ment was  used  to  increase  the  wind.  The  fan  is,  in  fact,  the 
shovel  or  wooden  fork  with  which  the  unseparated  grain  and 
straw  is  thrown  into  the  au\  The  allusions  to  the  fan  and  the 
winnowing  of  grain  are  too  abundant  in  Scripture  to  need 
citation.  The  allusions  by  the  prophet  to  fanning,  as  in  Jer. 
15:  7  and  Isaiah  30:  24,  and  41:  16  refers  to  what  was  the 
ancient,  as  well  as  the  modern,  custom  of  winnowing  the  grain 
by  a  shovel  or  fork.^  The  most  significant  allusion  to  this 
Oriental  way  of  cleaning  the  grain  is  the  prediction  respecting 
our  Lord,  "  whose  fan  is  in  his  hand,  and  he  will  thoroughly 
purge  his  floor."  ^  There  is  another  significant  passage  in 
Psalms  139:3,  "Thou  searchest  (or  winnowest)  out  my  path 
and  my  lying  down."  The  image  here  is  a  bold  Oriental 
one  of  the  farmer,  who  throws  his  threshed  grain  many  times 
into  the  air  in  the  process  of  winnowing  that  he  may  make 
it  thoroughly  clean.  So  God  would  winnow  us  to  make  us 
thoroughly  godly. 

217.  Granaries. — The  present  unsettled  condition  of  most 
of  the  countries  of  the  East  causes  the  farmers  and  peasants 
to  have  the  most  secluded  and  secret  places  for  storing  their 
grain.  Often  it  was  in  a  carefully  prepared  cistern  or  pit  under 
ground,  sometimes  viithin  the  house.  One  traveler  speaks  of 
finding  such  a  grain  pit  in  the  reception  room  of  an  Oriental 
house.  Dr.  F.  J.  Bliss,  the  explorer,  found  large  pits  dug  in 
the  hard  ground,  with  narrow  mouths,  in  which  wandering 
Arabs  store  their  grain  to-day.  He  adds,  "Pits  of  the  same 
kind,  but  smaller,  containing  perhaps  the  stores  of  a  single 
family,  were  recognized  in  our  excavations  at  Lachish  and 
elsewhere.  These  were  filled  up  quite  solidly  when  we  exca- 
vated them,  but  their  circumference  of  hard  earth  Vv^as  dis- 
tinctly preserved.  In  one  case  at  Lachish  a  chamber  was 
found  full  of  charred  barley,  which  had  been  stored  away 

'  See  also  Jer.  51  :  2,  *  Matt.  3  :  12;  Luke  3  :  17. 


144  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

some  three  thousand  years  ago,  and  then  burned  before  it  could 
ever  be  used.'"^  And  Tristram  tells  of  how  "wheat  is  now 
universally  stored  in  silos  or  underground  pits,  hollow  cham- 
bers, about  eight  feet  deep,  carefully  cemented  on  the  inside, 
so  as  to  be  impervious  to  damp,  and  with  a  circular  opening  at 
the  mouth  about  fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  just  large  enough 
to  admit  the  passage  of  a  man,  and  which  is  boarded  over, 
then,  if  needed  for  concealment,  covered  with  earth  or  turf. 
In  such  receptacles  the  corn  will  remain  sound  for  several 
years  (?).  These  silos  abound  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and 
are  probably,  in  some  cases,  the  identical  store-houses  used  by 
the  Jews,  who  first  constructed  them.  They  are  frequently  close 
to  an  old-wine  press,  where  has  been  the  homestead  of  some 
Israelite  farmer."  Such  store-houses  are  alluded  to  in  Jer. 
41 :  8,  "  Slay  us  not:  for  we  have  treasures  in  the  field,  of  wheat, 
and  of  barley,  and  of  oil,  and  of  honey."  These  store-houses 
are  often  under  the  women's  apartments,^  where  a  woman 
hid  Jonathan  and  Ahimaaz  in  one  of  these  silos,  covering  it  over 
and  spreading  grain  on  the  top,  so  that  those  who  were  search- 
ing for  them  did  not  suspect  the  place  of  their  hiding.  The 
Arabs  of  to-day  have  such  places  for  keeping  and  secreting 
their  grain  from  the  wandering  bands  of  brigands  and  from 
the  more  lawless  government  spies. 

IS.  S.  W.,  1907,  p.  165.  *See  2  Sam.  4:6;  17  :  18,  19. 


Oriental  'riii.'K>iii\i,    Ii.hii:. 

WOMEN    WINNOWING. 
(Copyright  by  Underwood  &■  Underwood.  New  i'ori.) 


r.  140 


XX. 


FRUITS  AND  VINES. 


2i8.  Kinds  of  Fruits. — Fruits  abound  in  Bible  and  all 
Oriental  lands.  Syria  now  has  many  kinds  of  fruit  trees  and 
fruit-bearing  shrubs.  Dr.  Post  gives  a  list  of  about  forty  prin- 
cipal ones  that  abound  in  Palestine  alone.  Among  the  best 
known  fruit  trees  are  the  olive,  fig,  orange,  apricot,  pomegran- 
ate, mulberry,  cherry,  nectarine,  plum,  and  medlar.  "Aledlar" 
is  a  fruit  known  by  a  Turkish  name,  which  means,  "the  next 
world."  Apples  and  pears  are  grown  near  Damascus,  but  are 
not  indigenous  to,  and  do  not  thrive  well  in,  Palestine.  The 
pomegranate  tree  seems  like  an  uncared-for  shrub.  Large 
and  good  apricots  grow  near  Solomon's  pools. 

219.  Figs. — Fig  trees  are  cultivated  in  gardens,  usually 
by  women.  If  the  fig  garden  is  away  from  the  village,  it  may 
have  a  hut,  to  which  the  family  owning  the  garden  removes 
in  the  summer  months,  not  only  from  villages,  but  from  towns 
like  Hebron,  Gaza,  Ramleh,  and  Lydda.  The  women  gather 
the  figs,  dry  them  on  the  red  earth  in  the  sun  in  an  enclosed 
space,  to  keep  away  the  dogs,  chickens,  and  children  by  day, 
and  the  jackals  and  foxes  by  night.  The  fruit  harvest  is  a 
happy  time  for  women  and  girls.  They  sing,  sometimes 
from  morning  until  night,  one  girl  sings  a  line  and  another 
in  the  next  garden,  or  across  the  valley,  sings  a  second  line, 
and  so  they  continue  the  songs  antiphonally  all  the  day.  The 
figs,  when  dried,  are  put  away  for  winter,  or  are  sold  in  the 
markets,  as  at  Jerusalem  and  Jaffa.  Sometimes  "long  gar- 
lands of  dried  figs  are  put  on  a  string,  weighing  together  seven 
or  eight  pounds.  This  method  is  common  in  villages  like 
Bethel,  Gibeon,  Nazareth,  and  other  small  places.  Es  Salt 
(east  of  the  Jordan)  is  renowTied  for  figs  and  raisins." 

220.  Early    Figs. — There    are   several   kinds   of   figs,    and 
10  145 


146  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

they  vary  in  their  time  of  ripening.  The  fig  and  olive  orchards 
are  plowed  in  the  spring,  when  the  leaves  are  starting,  and 
sometimes  again  when  the  first  crop  has  been  stripped  off, 
and  the  second  crop  is  sprouting,  and  again  in  the  autumn 
after  the  first  rains.  Some  figs  ripen  as  early  as  February  or 
March,  even  as  far  north  as  Beirut.  They  would  also  be  ripe 
that  early  in  the  Jordan  Valley,  and  there  might  be  fruit  found 
as  early  as  March  or  April  (the  time  of  the  Passover)  beneath 
Olivet  near  Jerusalem.  Sometimes  also  the  late  violet-colored 
autumn  figs  hang  upon  the  trees  through  the  winter  and  until 
the  spring  leaves  begin  to  come.  Of  these  figs,  the  Orientals 
are  said  to  be  particularly  fond.  This  throws  light  upon  the 
narrative  of  the  barren  fig  tree.^  Prof.  W.  M.  Thomson  tells 
of  having  picked  ripe  figs  in  May  from  trees  on  the  Lebanon, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  where  the 
season  is  nearly  a  month  later  than  in  Palestine.  He  does 
not  think  it  improbable  that  ripe  figs  might  have  been  found 
at  Easter  "  in  the  warm  sheltered  ra\ines  of  Olivet."  As 
the  fruit-bud  begins  to  come  before  the  leaves,  when  there  is 
no  fruit  on  a  tree  full  of  leaves,  it  would  properly  be  counted 
barren.  The  fact  that  Oriental  figs  mature  in  Palestine  as 
early  as  April  was  formerly  sharply  questioned.  Some  years 
ago  I  investigated  the  matter,  and  found  that  they  did  so,  by 
a  line  of  testimony  which  has  not  been  since  successfully 
questioned.  Thus,  Prof.  Post  vn:ote  me  from  Beirut,  "Figs 
do  not  usually  ripen  until  June  or  July.  ...  In  my  garden  in 
Beirut,  in  places  wel:  sheltered  from  the  wind,  I  have  two 
fig  trees,  on  each  of  which  there  arc  now  [Jan.  22]  young 
figs.  One  of  them  began  to  bear  this  late  crop  in  October; 
and  the  figs  have  been  ripening,  one  after  another,  until  now, 
and  the  last  will  probably  be  ripe  about  the  first  of  Februarj'." 
He  adds,  "In  the  wilderness  (Sinai)  I  collected  branches  of 
wild  figs  March  16,  on  which  were  young  figs  as  large  as  filberts, 
while  as  yet,  not  a  leaf  had  unfolded."    Dr.  Manning  refers 

•  Mark  ii  :  12-14,  and  .ilso  upon  passages  like  the  foUmving:  Isaiah  28  :  4;  Jer.  84  :  2; 
Hosea  9  :  10;  Nahum  3  :  la;  Matt,  ai  :  19;  Luke  13  :  7. 


FRUITS   AND   VINES.  147 

to  another  kind  of  early  fig:  "In  the  early  spring,  when  the 
leaves  first  appear,  an  immense  number  of  small  figs  are 
produced,  which  do  not  ripen,  but  fall  from  the  branches. 
This  first  crude,  untimely  growth,  though  of  no  commercial 
value,  is  yet  plucked  and  eaten  by  the  peasantry.  A  young 
Syrian  gentleman,  one  of  his  companions,  plucked  and  ate 
these  figs  without  stint  or  scruple."  ^  Dr.  H.  C.  Fish  testifies: 
"Two  kinds  of  fig  trees  abound  in  Palestine;  one  maturing 
its  fruit  in  spring,  the  other  in  summer  or  autumn.  By  the 
end  of  March  and  in  April  and  May  the  early  kind  is  found." 
Dr.  Tristram  says  that  about  May  he  saw  "ancient  fig  trees 
laden  with  nearly  ripe  fruit  near  Amman."  Mrs.  Finn,  twelve 
years  resident  in  Palestine,  states  that  winter  figs  were  still 
on  the  trees  in  March.  Dr.  S.  Merrill  found  near  Tiberias, 
on  February  20th,  "A  fig  tree  which  had  new  shoots  on  it,  and 
also  some  old  figs,  which  were  still  green.  It  was  loaded 
besides  with  small  figs  about  the  size  of  walnuts."  These 
are  only  a  few  specimens  of  the  testimony  I  gathered  in  regard 
to  the  time  of  early  figs  in  Palestine. 

Sacred  writers  often  describe  great  prosperity  and  safety 
by  the  expression  "Judah  and  Israel  dwelt  safely,  every  man 
under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig  tree."^  The  prophets  often  used 
the  tree  or  the  fruit  of  the  tree  to  teach  important  reUgious 
lessons.^ 

221.  The  Olive. — Among  the  principal  fruits  of  Syria, 
Mr.  Haddad  counts  the  fig,  olive,  and  vine  as  the  most  im- 
portant. The  olive  requires  a  long  time  to  bear  fruit;  "ten 
or  fifteen  years  after  they  are  planted  or  grafted,  during  which 
they  need  continual  cultivation.  ...  In  order  to  have  some  re- 
turn before  the  olives  begin  to  bear,  fig  trees  are  planted  with 
them  in  the  same  pit,  which  produces  fruit  within  two  years 
after  planting.  When  the  olive  trees  begin  to  bear,  the  owners 
root  up  the  fig  trees  and  give  attention  solely  to  the  olives."  * 
Usually  the  branches  of  the  fig  trees  bend  downward,  some- 

'  See  Rev.  6:13. 

*  I  Kings  4  :  25;  2  Kings  18  :  31;  Prov.  27  :  18;  Isaiah  36  :  16,  and  Micah  4  :  4. 

'  See  Jer.  24  :  1-8;  29  :  17.  *  Compare  Romans  11  :  17-24  and  Jas.  3  :  12. 


148  ORIENTALISMS   IN    BIBLE   LANDS. 

times  touching  the  ground,  so  a  man  standing  under  a  fig 
tree  may  be  quite  concealed.  Olives,  after  figs,  ripen  about 
November.  Women  gather  the  fruit,  singing  as  they  work. 
The  olives  are  taken  to  the  oil  mill  by  the  men.  The  first 
olives  falling  prematurely  to  the  ground  are  gathered  by  the 
women  alone,  and  are  crushed  on  a  flat  rock  with  a  stone,  and 
then  put  in  water  to  extract  the  oil.  These  produce,  it  is  said, 
poor  oil.  The  mode  of  beating  or  gathering  the  fruit  is  primi- 
tive, as  in  ancient  times.^  The  songs  are  often  improvised, 
sometimes  romantic  adventures,  princely  honors,  in  which  a 
lover  is  imagined  as  coming  forth  with  a  camel  and  a  slave 
to  serve  the  singer,  [but  he  never  does]. 

222.  Old  Olive  Trees. — Olive  trees  are  abundant  in  every 
part  of  the  Holy  Land  now  and  are  characteristic  of  the 
country.  Extensive  olive  orchards  or  yards  are  on  the  borders 
of  the  Phoenician  plain,  and  by  the  valleys  of  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon,  the  vale  of  Shechem,  the  plain  of  Moreh,  which  is  stud- 
ded with  them,  on  the  slopes  around  Bethlehem  and  Hebron, 
and  on  the  fertile  regions  east  of  the  Jordan,  as  on  the  plains 
of  Gilead  and  Bashan-land,  which  still  yield  a  large  return 
for  slight  care  and  culture.  Olive  trees  are  among  the  best 
possessions  of  the  towns  of  Philistia  and  Sharon.  The  culture 
of  the  oUve  is  increasing  around  Jerusalem  also.  The  oldest 
olive  trees  in  the  country  are  believed  to  be  those  in  the  garden 
of  Gethsemane.  There  are  seven  or  eight  of  them,  the  trunks 
gnarled  and  \\TinkJed,  and  cracked  from  age  and  shored  up 
with  stones.  The  guides  tell  tourists  that  they  date  back  to 
the  time  of  Christ.  They  are  surely  of  great  age  and  size, 
and  about  twenty  feet  in  circumference.  But  Titus  cut  down 
all  the  trees  about  Jerusalem,  and  the  crusaders  found  the 
country  destitute  of  wood.  We  find  no  mention  of  those  olive 
trees  before  the  sixteenth  century,  A.  D.  The  Turkish  govern- 
ment taxes  each  olive  tree  yearly,  which  discourages  the  plant- 
ing of  new  olive  orchards.  Olive  trees  bear  an  amazing 
quantity  of  blossoms.      The  traveler  may  see  the  blossoms 

'  See  Ex.  27  :  20. 


FRUITS   AND   VINES.  149 

in  the  slightest  breeze,  falling  in  showers  like  snowflakes,  as 
if  there  were  millions  of  them  on  a  tree,  yet  enough  remains 
to  load  the  tree  with  fruit.  The  sacred  dramatic  poem  of 
Job  alludes  to  this,  "He  .  .  .  shall  cast  off  his  flower  as  the 
olive  tree."  * 

223.  Olive  and  Peace. — From  time  immemorial  the  olive 
tree  has  been  closely  associated  with  the  history  of  man.  It 
was  a  sign  of  peace,  reconciliation,  and  plenty,  for  the  dove 
brought  back  an  olive  leaf  to  the  ark:  "Lo,  in  her  mouth  an 
olive-leaf  plucked  off."^  There  is  a  Greek  tradition  that 
the  first  olive  branch  reached  them,  carried  by  a  dove,  from 
Phoenicia  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter  in  Epirus.  While  the  fig 
is  the  first  tree  named  in  Scripture,  the  leaves  being  used  to 
make  garments,^  the  olive  is  also  prominent  from  the  time  of 
the  deluge,  and  because  it  is  mentioned  in  the  first  parable 
recorded  in  the  Old  Testament,  where  Jothan  says  it  was 
invited  to  be  "king  over  the  trees."  The  olive  replied,  "Should 
I  leave  my  fatness,  Avherev,ath  by  me  they  honor  God  and 
man,  and  go  to  wave  to  and  fro  over  the  trees?"*  The  fig  tree 
was  also  invited  to  be  king,  and  declined,  and  so  did  the  vine; 
at  last  the  bramble  was  chosen.  The  oHve  was  one  of  the 
special  blessings  of  the  land  of  promise.  One  of  the  marks  of 
Jehovah's  anger  was  the  lack  of  oil,  and  that  the  olive  should 
cast  his  fruit.^  David  compares  himself  to  a  "green  olive  tree 
in  the  house  of  God."  ° 

224.  Olive  Oil.— The  mode  of  gathering  the  fruit,  and  of 
leaving  a  gleaning  for  the  stranger  and  the  fatherless,  are 
referred  to  by  the  prophets.'  The  oil  from  the  olive  is  abundant, 
sometimes  from  ten  to  fifteen  gallons  from  a  tree  in  a  year. 
The  oil  is  still  used  in  place  of  butter;  nearly  every  dish  is 
cooked  with  it,  and  bread  is  dipped  in  it.  It  supplied  the  lamp 
(for  candles  were  not  used  there) ;  it  makes  the  soap,  and  the 
berry  is  pickled  for  the  peasant,  whose  dinner  often  consists 

•  Job.  15  :  33.  »  Gen.  8:11.  '  Gen.  3  :  7- 

*  Tudg.  9:9.  *  Deut.  6  :  11;  8  :  7.  8;  28  :  40. 
•^  Ps.  S2  : 8;  see  Ter.  11  :  16;  Hosea  14  :  6;  Deut  33  :  24- 
'  Isaiah  17  :  6;  Deut  24  :  20. 


150  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

of  a  handful  of  olives,  WTapped  in  a  thin  barley  cake.  The 
oil  is  used  also  as  a  medicine  for  wounds  and  bruises,  for  rub- 
bing the  body  after  a  bath,  for  dressing  the  hair,  and  for  the 
mixing  of  offerings  in  sacrifice,  as  of  old,  and  for  the  consecra- 
tion of  priests.^  The  olive  grows  wUd  in  the  Orient,  and  must 
be  grafted,  or  it  produces  only  small,  worthless  fruit.  (Com- 
pare Romans  11:  17-24,  where  the  apostle  calls  the  Gentiles 
the  "wild  olive  .  .  .  grafted  in"  contrary  to  nature  upon  the 
good  olive.) 

225.  Proverbs  on  Olives  and  Figs. — The  peasants  of  Palestine 
have  many  curious  proverbs  coming  down,  no  doubt,  from 
ancient  times,  relating  to  the  olive,  the  fig,  and  the  vine. 
Thus  they  call  the  vme  a  sitt,  ''a  delicate  town-lady,  who  needs 
a  great  deal  of  care  and  attention."  The  fig  is  a.  fcllaha,  "a 
strong  country-woman,  who  flourishes  without  care."  But 
the  olive  is  a  bold  hedawife,  "enduring  hardship;  a  strong 
and  useful  Arab  wife." 

226.  Oil  Press. — As  the  olives  ripen,  the  trees  are  beaten 
with  sticks  carefully,  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  young  leaves 
and  shoots.  The  olive-berries  are  collected  and  spread  on 
the  roofs,  or  somewhere  in  heaps,  often  to  ferment  sHghtly, 
then  they  are  taken  to  the  oil  press,  and  crushed  under  a  heavy 
millstone,  and  packed  in  little  straw  baskets,  and  finally  pressed. 
The  oil  (the  Arabs  call  it  zayt)  is  caught  in  a  cemented  cistern, 
from  which  it  is  drawn  out  into  leatlier  bottles,  or  earthen- 
ware jars,  for  use  or  for  sale.  It  is  used,  as  already  stated,  for 
cooking,  but  in  most  of  the  Oriental  countries  of  Western 
Asia  it  is  not  now  used  in  lamps,  having  been  superseded  by 
petroleum. 

227.  Use  of  Oil,  etc. — Olive  oil  and  figs  are  still  common  in 
medical  practice.  Figs  are  used  for  poultices  now,  as  in  the 
prophet's  time :  "Take  a  cake  of  figs,  and  lay  it  for  a  plaster  upon 
the  boil,  and  he  shall  recover."  ^  The  olive  and  its  oil  are 
still  a  large  part  of  the  wealth  of  poor  people,  as  in  the  days 

>  Hab.  3  :  17, 18;  Matt.  6  :  17;  Luke  10  :  34;  Ps.  23  :  5;  Lev.  j  :  1;  i  Kings6  :  23,  31,  33. 
*  Isaiah  38  :  21;  see  Matt  6  :  17;  Luke  10  :  34. 


FRUITS  AND   VINES.  151 

of  Elisha,  who  multiplied  the  widow's  oil  to  enable  her  to 
pay  her  debt  and  save  her  children  from  being  sold  as  bonds- 
men.^ The  failure  of  these  fruits,  both  olive  and  fig,  is  threat- 
ened as  a  judgment  from  Jehovah.^  The  putting  forth  of  the 
first  buds  of  the  fig,  which  comes  before  the  leaves,  was  counted 
a  sign  of  summer,  and  is  so  still .^ 

228.  Grapes. — The  grape-vine,  like  the  olive,  the  fig,  and 
the  date-palm,  is  indigenous  to  Syria.  One  variety,  the  fox 
grape,  grows  wild  now  on  the  uplands  of  Jordan.  Southern 
Palestine  yields  an  abundance  of  grapes,  perhaps  almost  as 
great  a  quantity  as  in  patriarchal  times.*  The  grape-vines 
are  planted  about  ten  feet  apart.  Some  allow  the  branches  to 
spread  on  the  ground,  and  some  raise  them  on  a  trellis.  They 
may  be  arranged  to  climb  around  the  porches  or  upon  old 
fruitless  trees,  like  a  terebinth  or  an  oak.  The  soil  and  climate 
of  Syria  are  very  suitable  for  grapes,  and  some  peasants  depend 
largely  for  their  living  on  the  vineyard,  taking  pains  in  cultivat- 
ing them.  The  grape  grows  in  a  great  many  varieties,  as  to 
shape,  size,  color,  thickness  of  skin,  size  of  seeds,  or  seedless, 
and  is  marked  by  different  degrees  of  sweetness,  hardness,  and 
flavor.  Some  are  best  for  drying  and  for  raisins;  others  for 
making  molasses,  vdne,  or  vinegar. 

The  young  leaves  are  tender,  and  are  used  as  a  green  vegeta- 
ble; the  sour,  green  grape  is  used  in  place  of  the  lemon.  There 
is  nothing  wasted  of  the  vine  or  the  fruit.  When  the  green 
leaves  become  hard  and  coarse,  and  unfit  for  cooking,  they 
are  fed  to  the  sheep  and  goats  to  fatten  them.  The  branches 
are  trimmed,  and  the  wood  is  used  to  make  charcoal,  or  for 
fire-wood;  so  every  bit  of  the  vine  and  of  the  grape  is  made 
useful  by  the  Oriental. 

229.  Pruning. — In  the  spring,  before  the  young  sprouts 
come,  the  peasant  lops  off  all  superfluous  branches,  "leaving 
only  the  trunk  and  a  few  principal  branches,  which  he  places 
on  the  ground,  all  turned  the  same  way,  so  that  he  can  plov/ 

•  3  Kings  4  : 1-8.         'Ps.  105  :  33;  Jer.  s  :  17;  8  :  13;  Hosea  2  :  12;  Joel  1  :  7,  ts. 

*  Matt  34  :  32.  *  Gen.  49  :  ir,  12. 


152  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

between  them.  .  .  .  Every  feeble,  sickly  branch  and  tnmk  is 
cut  away  so  that  aU  the  sap  goes  to  the  new  sprouts.  Fresh 
cuttings  put  into  the  ground  are  allowed  to  grow  unpruned 
for  a  year  or  two."  The  branch  which  is  closest  to  the  trunk 
or  root  bears  the  most  fruit.^  Even  to  this  day,  the  peasant 
hopes  to  have  an  abundant  harvest  until  "the  summer  is  ended." 
Thus,  the  prophet  puts  himself  in  the  place  of  the  people 
and  exclaims,  "The  harvest  is  past,  the  summer  (or  ingather- 
ing of  summer  fruits)  is  ended,  and  we  are  not  saved."  ^ 

230.  Vineyards. — Vineyards  in  Palestine  are  usually  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  stone  or  a  hedge.  "In  a  large  vineyard," 
says  Mr.  Haddad,  "a  wine-vat  is  dug  or  cut  in  a  rock,  consist- 
ing of  a  basin  in  the  upper  part  of  it,  and  a  heavy  pressing 
stone.  Below,  in  the  rock,  a  pool  is  cut  to  receive  the  juice  of 
the  pressed  grapes.  The  juice  is  made  into  wine  or  boiled 
into  a  thick  molasses,  called  dibs.  A  tower  is  built  for  the 
watchman,  who  dwells  in  it,  with  the  workmen  that  gather 
the  fruit.  The  best  kinds  of  grapes  in  Northern  Lebanon 
are  put  in  bags,  some  bunches  weigh  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds. 
There  is  one  kind,  in  the  vicinity  of  Hebron  and  in  the  valley 
of  Eshcol,  a  bunch  of  which  sometimes  weighs  about  twenty- 
four  pounds."  He  adds,  "They  carry  it  on  a  pole  between 
two  persons,  as  did  the  spies  of  Aloses."  ^ 

Large  vineyards  are  now  rented;  the  owner  renting  one  to 
one  or  two  families,  and  requiring  the  peasant  to  give  him  half 
of  the  product,  or  more,  according  to  agreement.  He  sends 
his  servant  to  take  his  share  in  fruit  and  to  sell  it  to  mer- 
chants, as  he  also  takes  his  share  of  raisins,  or  wine,  or  what- 
ever may  be  the  product  of  the  vineyard.  This  illustrates  the 
parable  of  our  Lord  in  regard  to  the  wicked  husbandmen.* 

231.  Towers  and  Watchmen. — Rev.  J.  E.  Hanauer  of  Da- 
mascus tells  me  that  the  region  of  Eshcol  is  now  (1909) 
quite  surrounded  with  vineyards,  which  are  enclosed  with 
stone  walls,  bordered  along  the  top  with  thorns,  to  keep  out 

'  John  IS  :  4-6.  '  Jer.  8  :  20.  '  Num.  13  :  33. 

♦Matt.  21  :  19,  28,  33-40;  Mark  12  :  1-9;  Luke  20  :  9-18. 


Summer  Booths,  Syria. 

{.Copyright  hv  Underiuood &•  Underwood,  New  York) 


1'.    153 


Oriental  Family  Moving. 

{Copyright  hy  Underwood  Sr  Underwood,  New  York.) 


P.    153 


FRUITS   AND   VINES.  1 53 

the  foxes,  jackals,  and  other  creatures  that  spoil  the  grapes, 
and  have  inside  rough  stone  towers,  or  kitchens,  for  the  keepers 
of  the  vineyards.'  "The  towers  usually  contain  one  small 
chamber,  about  eight  or  ten  feet  in  diameter,  where  the  owner 
of  the  vineyard,  or  the  keeper  and  his  family,  have  household 
goods,  a  handmill,  cookuag  utensils,  and  reside  there  during 
the  summer.  From  this  lower  chamber,  a  rude  staircase, 
sometimes  built  within  the  wall,  or  winding  outside  it,  reaches 
to  the  flat  roof,  where  the  watchman  can  see  the  vineyard, 
and  sound  an  alarm  in  case  of  danger.  The  watchman  may 
have  a  booth  of  boughs  and  branches  of  trees  as  a  shelter 
from  the  sun's  rays."  In  the  winter  the  vineyards  are  deserted, 
illustrating  the  prophet's  description:  "The  daughter  of  Zion 
is  left  as  a  booth  in  a  vineyard,  as  a  lodge  in  a  garden  of 
cucumbers." 2  "Hundreds  of  these  vineyard-towers  may  be 
seen  all  over  the  country.  Connected  with  these  towers  are 
old  rock  hewn  wine-presses,  often  with  underwood  grooving 
out  of  them.3  These  wine-presses  are  of  various  sizes,  generally 
consisting  of  a  quadrangular  excavation,  eight  feet  square, 
and  ten  inches  deep,  for  the  reception  of  the  grapes  to  be  trodden, 
and  from  which  the  'must'  or  grape  juice  runs  through  a  rock 
channel  into  a  pit  or  vat,  about  2x4  feet  and  three  feet  deep 
at  the  lower  level.  In  some  ancient  wine-presses  there  is  a 
third  and  smaller  pit  at  a  yet  lower  level,  probably  to  hold  a 
jar  into  which  the  grape  juice  which  had  collected  overflowed, 
after  having  allowed  the  grape  seeds  and  husks  to  settle." 

232.  Dried  Grapes. — "Dried  grapes  or  raisins  are,  like 
fresh  grapes  during  the  season,  a  staple  article  of  food.  The 
best  raisins  are  grovm  near  Es  Salt  (Ramoth  GUead),  east 
of  the  Jordan.  They  are  the  famous  'saltana'  [wrongly  called 
'sultana']  raisins  of  commerce.  The  vines  there  are  planted 
in  rows,  sometimes  raised  from  the  ground  on  supports,  care- 
fully pruned  in  autumn  or  spring,  that  they  may  bring  forth 
more  fruit.*     When  the  leaves  and  grape  clusters  are  formed. 


'  Hosea  2  :  6;  Cant.  2  :  15;  8  :  11. 
'Isaiah  5  :  2;  Matt.  21  :  33;  Mark  12  :  i. 


'  Isaiah  i  :  8. 
*  John  15:2. 


154  ORIENTALISMS   Un    BIBLE   LANDS. 

they  are  carefully  fumigated  v.'ith  sulphur  as  a  protection 
against  pernicious  fungi  and  insects.  As  symbols  of  the 
country  the  vine  or  its  clusters  are  frequently  found  sculptured 
on  monuments." 

233.  '^Dibs." — Natives  tell  us  that  dibs  (a  syrup)  is  ob- 
tained by  boiling  the  juice  of  the  grapes  until  it  becomes 
as  thick  as  molasses.  The  Moslems  are  said  to  be  fond  of 
dibs,  eating  it  with  bread,  and  drinking  it,  thinned  with  water, 
and  using  it  largely  in  confectionery.  The  Hebrew  name 
debash  (honey)  is  behaved  by  Dr.  Tristram  to  be  identical  with 
this  syrup,  or  dibs,  and  not  bee's  honey.  Jacob  sent  this  dovm 
as  a  present  to  the  governor  of  Egj'pt.^  And  the  men  of  Tyre 
exported  it  to  the  land  of  Israel.^ 

The  juice  of  the  grape  is  still  pressed  out  by  the  simple 
process  of  treading.  Several  travelers  have  described  this  pro- 
cess, the  treading  usually  being  done  by  men,  who  encourage 
each  other,  after  the  Oriental  fashion  of  singing  and  shouting, 
as  in  olden  time.^ 

Several  kinds  of  vines  and  wines  are  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
since  there  are  about  eight  Hebrew  and  four  Greek  words  that 
signify  wine.  All  these  kinds  may  be  made  from  grapes,  but 
some  of  them  are  also  made  from  pomegranates  and  other 
fruits.  Sometimes  dibs  is  made  so  that  it  can  be  used  as  a  drink, 
and  sometimes  it  is  eaten  like  butter.  Thus,  Dr.  W.  M. 
Thomson  tells  of  a  Bedouin  Sheikh,  who  dipped  a  bit  of  bread 
in  grape  molasses  (dibs)  and  gave  it  to  him  to  eat,  saying,  "Now 
we  are  brothers;  there  is  bread  and  salt  between  us."  The 
Arab  also  gave  a  bit  of  the  bread  to  all  Dr.  Thomson's  compan- 
ions, and  to  the  muleteers,  and  to  all  about  the  tent,  who  tasted 
of  it.  This  was  the  ceremony  which  sealed  a  covenant  of  friend- 
ship. It  gave  the  missionary  and  his  company  permission  to 
travel  wherever  they  pleased  in  the  Sheikh's  territory,  he  being 
pledged  to  aid  and  befriend  them,  "even  to  the  loss  of  his  own 
life."    The  Arabs  term  this  khuwy,  or  the  covenant  of  brother- 

'  Gen.  43:11.  'Ezek.  87:17. 

•See  Gen.  49  :  11;  Isaiah  16  :  9.  10;  63  :  2,  3;  Jer.  25  :  30;  48  :  33. 


FRUITS   AND   VINES.  1 55 

hood.  This  covenant  can  never  be  forgotten  or  renounced. 
The  Rev.  F.  Moghabghab,  a  S3aian,  tells  of  three  forms  of 
covenants  among  Oriental  shepherds:  i.  Of  drinking  water, 
coffee,  or  wine  together.  2.  Of  salt  or  eating  together.  3.  Of 
blood,  the  most  sacred  of  all,  sealed  by  "cutting"  and  killing 
sheep. 

234.  How  Kept — "Bottles.''^ — Wine,  water,  milk,  and  other 
liquids  are  kept  in  jars  or  other  receptacles,  but  when  carried 
on  a  journey  these  liquids  are  put  into  water  skins  or  "bottles." 
The  jars  in  Egypt  are  usually  of  two  kinds,  one  with  a  narrow, 
and  another  with  a  wide,  mouth.  Lane  says  they  are  made 
of  a  grayish  porous  earth,  which  cools  the  water  by  evaporation. 
The  interior  of  the  jar  is  often  blackened  with  the  smoke  of 
some  wood,  and  then  perfumed  with  an  Arabic  gum,  like  mas- 
tic* The  leather  or  skin  bottles  are  of  several  different  sizes  and 
kinds.  They  are  usually  made  from  the  skin  of  the  goat, 
rarely,  if  ever,  from  that  of  the  sheep,  because  the  sheep  skin 
is  not  strong  enough.  Sometimes  they  are  made  from  the  skin 
of  the  camel,  or  an  ox  skin,  which  is  prepared  by  tanning. 
The  goat's  skin  is  used  whole,  being  drawn  off  the  body  of  the 
animal  after  cutting  off  its  head  and  feet;  the  openings  thus 
made  being  sewed  up,  and  the  joinings  well  smeared  with  grease. 
These  bottles  become  dried  by  the  smoke  in  the  tents  or  houses 
of  Arabs,  and  are  liable  to  crack  and  become  worthless  when  old. 
Fermenting  wine  put  into  old  bottles  not  being  strong  enough 
to  hold  the  wine  during  fermentation,  suggested  the  com- 
parison of  our  Lord:  "No  man  putteth  new  wine  into  old  wine- 
skins; else  the  wine  will  burst  the  skins,  and  the  wine  perisheth, 
and  the  skins:  but  they  put  new  wine  into  fresh  wine-skins."  ^ 
The  large  bottles,  Bruce  says,  are  besmeared  on  the  outside 
all  over  with  grease  lest  the  water  or  the  Hquid  should  ooze 
through.  Pliny  Fisk  used  goats'  skins  to  carry  water  when  the 
skins  were  new.  He  says  it  gave  the  water  a  reddish  color 
and  an  exceedingly  loathsome  taste.  Harmer  tells  of  carrying 
liquid  in  smoked   leather  bottles,   which   when   rent   "were 

'  See  Ps.  119  :  83.  '  Matt.  9  :  17;  Mark  2  :  22;  Luke  s  :  37,  38. 


156  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

mended  by  putting  in  a  new  piece,  or  by  gathering  up  the  piece, 
or  by  inserting  a  flat  bit  of  wood."  Burckhardt  saw  Arabs 
keeping  water  for  their  horses  in  large  bags  made  of  tanned 
camel  skin.  These  were  sewn  up  on  the  four  sides,  so  as  to 
leave  two  openings;  two  such  bags  are  a  heavy  load  for  a  camel. 
Sometimes  the  wine  or  water  is  carried  in  a  cruse,  enclosed  in 
a  wicker  basket,  similar  to  that  which  David  must  have  taken 
from  beneath  Saul's  bolster.^ 

235.  Apricots,  etc. — Apples  are  named  six  times  in  Scripture, 
but  they  have  not  been  identified  with  any  modem  fruit  of  the 
Orient.  The  pear  and  quince  now  grow  in  Syria,  and  likewise 
the  apricot.  The  latter  is  abundant,  and  may  be  the  apple  of 
the  Bible.^  The  citron  of  the  Orient  is  a  species  of  orange, 
growing  on  a  tree,  as  in  Moses'  day.^  It  is  a  native  of  Media. 
The  leaf  is  larger  than  that  of  the  orange,  and  the  fruit  is 
larger  than  the  lemon,  of  oblong  shape,  and  the  blossoms  are 
pale  purple  in  color. 

236.  Carob  Tree. — The  locust,  or  carob  tree,  with  its  fruit, 
the  husks,*  still  abounds  in  Syria,  from  Hebron  north,  and  is  a 
conspicuous  object.  It  is  the  kharub  of  the  Arabs.  The  husks 
are  now  found  in  the  markets  of  Oriental  towns,  and  used  to 
feed  cattle,  horses,  and  pigs.  They  are  said  to  be  of  a  sweetish, 
agreeable  taste  when  chewed  before  they  are  ripe,  similar  to  the 
tamarind  pods  of  the  West  Indies. 

237.  Mulberry. — The  Mulberry  (black  and  white  variety) 
still  abounds  in  Syria  and  other  Oriental  lands.  It  is  probably 
the  becaim  or  mulbeny.^  But  it  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  fig-mulberry,  or  sycamine  tree,  to  which  our  Lord  referred  in 
his  teaching  on  faith.®  The  black  and  white  mulberry  are  now 
cultivated  in  Syria,  their  leaves  being  fed  to  silk-worms.  The 
sycamine  is  still  found  in  Palestine,  as  in  the  time  of  our  Lord 
and  of  the  Maccabees.  In  ancient  times  the  juice  (red  like 
blood)  was  used  to  frighten  or  excite  elephants.' 

238.  The  Palm. — The    date-palm  is  found  in  Nubia  and 

'  I  Sam.  26  :  12.  *Cant.  2:5;  7  :  8;  8  :  ■;;  Prov.  25  :  11,  Joel  i  :  12. 

•Lev.  2.?  :  40,  margin.         *  Luke  15  :  16.  '2  Sam.  5  :  23,  24;  1  Chron.  14  :  14. 

•  Luke  17:6.  '  I  Mac.  6  :  34. 


FRUITS   AND    VINES.  1 57 

Abyssinia,  and  in  other  Oriental  lands,  though  it  is  not  so  com- 
mon in  Syria  nov;  as  in  j)atriarchal  times.  The  date-palm  has 
long  leaves,  twelve  feet  sometimes, apparendy  called  "branches" 
in  Scripture.^  The  trunk  does  not  so  increase  in  thickness  as 
in  height,  so  that  a  tree  twenty  feet  high  may  be  as  thick  as  one 
that  is  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  high.  The  date-palm  is 
found  in  Western  India,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  Rivers,  and  in  Arabia  and  Egypt.  There  were  seventy 
palm  trees  and  ten  wells  of  water  at  Elim  to  cheer  Moses  and 
his  company.^  Palm  trees  must  have  abounded  near  Jericho, 
for  it  was  called,  "The  city  of  palm  trees."  ^  The  palms  have 
disappeared,  and  the  thorn  and  other  wild  trees  have  come  in 
their  places,  though  Dr.  Tristram  observed  one  ^^dld  palm  tree 
there  uith  a  clump  of  young  trees  about  it,  nearly  a  generation 
ago.  So,  too,  there  must  have  been  date-palms  about  Jerusa- 
lem, for  Bethany  signifies,  "House  of  dates,"  and  the  multi- 
tude welcomed  Jesus  on  his  entry  into  the  holy  city  with  branches 
of  palm  trees.*  A  few  palms  are  still  seen  in  the  gardens  of 
Jenin,  Nablus,  Beisan,  and  near  Nazareth.  It  is  counted  a 
famous,  stately  tree  still,  as  in  the  days  of  the  Psalmist:  "The 
righteous  shall  flourish  like  the  palm  tree:  he  shall  grow  like 
a  cedar  in  Lebanon."^  -For  this  reason  the  grace  and  beauty 
of  the  palm  arejrequently  used  to  picture  some  scene  or  illus- 
trate some  truth  in  the  Bible.® 

239.  Pomegranate. — The  pomegranate  is  a  fruit-bearing 
shrub  of  the  myrtle  family,  and  is  cultivated  in  all  the  warmer 
climates  of  the  Orient.  The  fruit  of  the  wild  plant  is  bitter 
and  astringent;  when  cultivated  it  is  highly  prized  now,  as  it 
was  of  old.''  The  juice  makes  a  cool  and  pleasant  drink,  and 
is  sometimes  made  into  a  Hght  wine.*  The  pomegranate  was 
also  the  model  for  ornamentation  in  various  ancient  buildings.® 

240.  Sycamore. — The  sycamore  is  a  species  of  fig  tree  allied 

'  Lev.  23  :  40;  Neh.  8:15.  '  Ex.  15  :  27;  comp.  Num.  33  :  9. 

•Deut.  34  :  3;  Judg.  i  :  16;  3  :  13;  2  Chron.  28  :  13. 

'John  12  :  13.  '  Ps.  92  :  12. 

»  Gen.  38  :  6;  Song  of  Sol.  7  :  7;  Jer.  10  :  5. 

'  Num.  13  :  23;  20  :  s;  Deut.  8  :  8;  i  Sam.  14  :  2;  Cant.  4  :  13. 

8  Comp.  Cant.  8  :  a.  «See  Ex.  28  :  33,  34;  39  :  24-36;  i  Kings  7  :  18 


158  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

to  the  famous  Banyan-tree  of  India,  and  quite  unlike  the 
sycamore  or  plane  tree  of  our  Western  v/orld.  It  grows  to  a 
large  size,  often  fifty  feet  in  circumference,  and  is  evergreen. 
It  is  common  in  Egypt,  and  was  used  for  making  mummy  cases, 
sound  now  after  being  entombed  for  thousands  of  years.  It 
was  formerly  more  abundant  than  now  in  Palestine,  for  Solomon 
made  "Cedars  ...  to  be  as  the  sycomore  ...  for  abun- 
dance." ^  Its  forking  branches  make  it  an  easy  tree  to  climb 
and  hence  it  was  chosen  by  Zaccheus,  who  climbed  into  one, 
when  he  wanted  to  get  a  good  view  of  our  Lord  as  he  passed.^ 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  poor,  insipid,  and  inferior  to  the  true  fig 
tree,  as  the  prophet  declared  in  his  day,  "the  other  basket  had 
very  bad  figs,  which  could  not  be  eaten,  they  were  so  bad."  ^ 
Another  prophet  (Amos)  counted  himself  as  a  "dresser," 
literally,  "a  [scraper]  of  sycomore  trees. "  *  The  leaves  have  a 
spicy  or  aromatic  fragrance. 

>  I  Kings  10  :  27;  2  Chron.  i  :  15;  9  :  27.  '  Luke  19  : 4. 

»  Jer.  24  :  a.  ■*  Amos  7  :  14- 


^1^^%.^ 


Water  Carriers. 

{Vfster&-  Co  ) 


P.    155 


Goatskin  Water  Bottles. 

{Pal  Exp.  Fund) 


1'.    155 


XXI. 


SHEPHERDS  AND  FLOCKS. 


The  shepherd  is  now,  as  he  ever  has  been,  the  picturesque 
and  prominent  figure  in  Oriental  life.  No  subject  has  inspired 
such  enthusiasm,  or  given  greater  attractiveness  to  the  sketches 
of  painter's  pencil  and  artist's  brush  than  the  shepherd  and 
his  sheep;  and  no  songs  are  sweeter  in  literature  than  those 
which  the  poet  sings  of  the  ideal  shepherd  life  in  the  Orient. 
There  are  no  stories  of  the  imagination,  there  are  no  historical 
narratives  that  so  universally  interest  young  and  old  as  the 
adventures  and  experiences  in  Oriental  shepherd  life.  They 
have  carried  with  them  more  lessons,  brought  deeper  impres- 
sions, and  inspired  nobler  results  than  almost  any  other  form 
of  literature  or  art. 

241.  Shepherd  Life. — The  shepherd  is  secluded  from  society, 
living  in  the  fields  and  sparse  woodlands  with  his  flock,  wear- 
ing simple  garments,  eating  plain  food,  satisfied  with  bare 
necessities,  and  none  of  the  comforts  of  social  life.  In  the 
summer  he  dwells  upon  the  hillsides  or  mountain  slopes  with 
his  flocks,  where  he  has  pure  air,  sweet  water,  basking  in 
the  sunshine  of  pasture  or  in  the  shade  of  green  foliage  and 
bright  flowers.  He  may  be  a  specimen  of  natural  simplicity; 
lie  is  an  example  of  simple  virtue;  his  kindness  is  proverbial, 
usually  he  is  truthful,  temperate  in  his  language,  and  kept 
from  many  of  the  evils  of  civilized  society.  He  is  skilled  with 
the  sling  or  the  gun,  is  said  to  be  able  to  hit  a  hair,  if  he  can 
see  it,  is  gentie  with  his  flocks,  keen  to  find  fertile  and  safe 
pastures,  and  to  protect  them  from  the  heat  of  summer  and 
the  cold  of  winter.  He  is  equally  bold  in  defending  them  from 
the  wild  beast  or  the  robber.  The  modern  shepherd  is 
aided  by  a  courageous,  powerful,  and  well-trained  dog.  He 
has  a  wonderful  memory,  which  retains  the  name  of  every 
sheep.     The  flocks  sometimes  contain  several  hundred,  and 

159 


l6o  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

yet  each  one  has  a  name  and  the  shepherd  knows  it,  and  calls 
every  sheep  by  its  proper  name.  He  is  sharp  to  discover  a 
missing  one,  and  searches  until  he  lands  it  or  finds  out  what 
has  become  of  it,  whether  it  has  fallen  into  the  river  or  been 
seized  by  a  wild  beast.  The  hurt  sheep  or  lamb  he  hunts 
out,  dresses  its  wounds  or  binds  its  broken  bones  with  skill  and 
success.  He  thus  becomes  a  surgeon,  not  only  for  sheep  and 
goats,  but  also  sometimes  for  people.  He  is  a  reverent  student 
of  the  stars. 

242.  A  Poet. — His  provisions  are  in  a  skin  bag,  slung  on  his 
shoulders,  chiefly  bread  and  salt.  His  cooking  utensils  are  a 
copper  bucket  and  a  bowl.  His  weapons  are  a  long  stafif  or 
club,  a  sling,  a  knife  under  his  girdle,  and,  in  modem  times, 
a  pistol  and  a  long  flint-lock  musket.  His  memory  is  a  won- 
derful book.  Out  of  it  he  recites  poetry  made  by  other  shep- 
herds or  himself,  poems  which  the  great  poets  have  sometimes 
worked  over  and  molded  into  beautiful  forms;  some  of  the 
most  brilliant  passages  of  their  poems  having  been  borrowed 
from  the  plainer,  but  forcible,  thoughts  of  these  shepherds. 
He  eats  his  quiet  meal,  thanks  God,  and  if  his  flock  is  safe 
from  wild  beasts  or  brigands,  he  takes  out  his  pipe,  or  flute, 
and  plays  some  weird  tune  or  sings  some  of  his  expressive 
and  beautiful  verses. 

243.  His  Loving  Care. — Mr.  Haddad  tells  of  watching 
shepherds  with  flocks  upon  the  slopes  of  Mount  Hermon: 
"Each  shepherd  watched  his  flock  closely  to  see  how  they 
fared.  When  he  found  a  new-bom  lamb  he  put  it  in  the 
folds  of  his  aba,  or  great  coat,  since  it  would  be  too  feeble  to 
follow  the  mother.  When  his  bosom  was  full,  he  put  lambs 
on  his  shoulders,  holding  them  by  the  feet,  or  in  a  bag  or  basket 
on  the  back  of  a  donkey,  until  the  little  ones  were  able  to  follow 
the  mothers. 

"He  trains  his  sheep  to  come  at  his  call,  to  go  in  order,  in 
twos  or  fours,  in  squares  and  circles;  one  from  the  outer  circle 
in  a  flock  of  a  thousand  will  come  when  its  name  is  called." 
It  is  the  voice  of  the  shepherd  that  the  sheep  recognizes. 


SHEPHERDS   AND   FLOCKS.  l6l 

A  Stranger  once  declared  to  a  Syrian  shepherd  that  the  sheep 
knew  the  dress  and  not  the  voice  of  their  master.  The  shep- 
herd said  it  was  the  voice  they  knew.  To  prove  this,  he  ex- 
changed dresses  with  the  stranger,  who  went  among  the  sheep 
in  the  shepherd's  dress,  calling  the  sheep  in  imitation  of  the 
shepherd's  voice,  and  tried  to  lead  them.  They  knew  not 
his  voice,  but  when  the  shepherd  called  them,  though  he  was 
disguised,  the  sheep  ran  at  once  at  his  call.*  The  reader  must 
not  forget  that  an  Oriental  shepherd  never  drives  his  sheep, 
but  always  goes  before  them,  and  leads  them,  and  they  follow 
him.  Even  when  some  unruly  sheep  does  not  heed  his  call, 
but  starts  to  stray  away,  the  shepherd  puts  a  stone  in  his  sling, 
and  deftly  lands  it  just  in  front  of  the  straying  sheep  as  a 
warning,  which  usually  brings  the  wandering  one  back  to  the 
flock. 

244.  Syrian  Sheep. — Sheep  are  usually  kept  on  the  plains, 
hills,  and  mountains.  Each  flock  is  by  itself,  under  the 
care  of  a  shepherd.  The  Syrians  think  that  sheep  in  the 
Orient  are  superior  to  those  found  in  America,  being,  as  they 
claim,  much  prettier,  having  more  intelligent  and  nicer  faces. 
The  Syrian  sheep  is  counted  meek,  gentle,  and  obedient, 
going  peaceably  and  quietly,  seldom  quarreling  with  each  other. 
The  milk  is  very  rich,  and  some  Orientals  prefer  the  butter 
made  of  it  to  that  made  from  the  milk  of  the  cow.  The  flesh 
is  sweet  and  delicious,  and  Orientals  prefer  it  to  beef  or  goat's 
flesh. 

The  shepherd  must  take  the  responsibility  of  his  flock, 
finding  it  good  and  fertile  pasture,  and  when  one  pasture  is 
eaten  bare,  take  his  flock  to  another,  sometimes  over  dangerous 
rocky  cliffs,  but  always  by  the  safest  and  easiest  path. 

245.  Stray  Sheep. — Sometimes  a  sheep  or  goat  gets  venture- 
some and  wild,  and  runs  away  to  the  woods  or  the  caves. 
The  shepherd  does  not  get  angry  at  the  sheep  because  it  did 
not  hear  his  voice  when  he  called  it  back,  nor  will  he  let  it 
perish.    He  leaves  his  flock  in  the  hands  of  an  assistant,  or 

'  John  10  :  5. 
11 


J 62  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

to  the  care  of  his  dog,  and  himself  goes  after  the  stray  lamb 
or  sheep,  through  the  woods  and  the  rocky  mountains,  in  the 
heat  of  summer  or  the  cold  of  winter,  to  bring  that  stray 
lamb  back  to  the  fold.  Why  does  he  take  this  trouble  ?  Even 
if  he  were  the  owner,  its  value  is  not  much;  the  loss  would 
not  be  great,  hardly  worth  exposing  himself  to  the  fatigue 
and  danger,  or  worth  leaving  the  rest  of  his  flock;  but  the 
shepherd's  reputation  is  at  stake.  These  shepherds,  gathered 
together,  mention  what  has  happened  during  the  day.  For  days, 
months,  and  years  afterward  it  would  be  mentioned  as  a 
disgrace  to  any  shepherd  who  permitted  a  stray  lamb  or  sheep 
to  perish  \vithout  going  in  search  of  it.  Or,  if  he  has  exposed 
himself  to  great  danger  to  save  the  lamb,  that  will  be  mentioned 
to  his  great  credit.  Others  \vill  praise  him  as  a  brave  shepherd. 
They  would  say  Ibrihim  went  after  his  sheep  and  saved  it 
from  the  mouth  of  a  lion  or  a  bear.  If  he  had  not  done  this 
he  would  be  branded  as  a  coward.  Other  sheep  of  his  flock 
would  lose  confidence  in  him,  even  though  he  were  their  leader. 
This  explains  the  parable  of  our  Lord:  "If  any  man  have  a 
hundred  sheep,  and  one  of  them  be  gone  astray,  doth  he  not 
leave  the  ninety  and  nine,  and  go  unto  the  mountains,  and 
seek  that  which  goeth  astray?  And  if  so  be  that  he  find  it, 
verily  I  say  unto  you,  he  rejoiceth  over  it  more  than  over  the 
ninety  and  nine  which  have  not  gone  astray."  ^ 

246.  ''Rod  and  Staff." — The  Oriental  shepherd  always  car- 
ries a  staff  or  crook,  and  usually  a  rod  or  club  for  defense.  The 
nabut,  or  club,  is  a  heavy  wooden  stick,  large  and  thick  at  one 
end,  and  studded  with  spikes  or  flint  stones  to  make  it  a  more 
deadly  weapon.  Sometimes  he  uses  this  with  a  dexterous 
svdng,  or  he  flings  it  at  an  enemy,  as  the  Australian  bushmen 
use  a  boomerang.  It  is  smaller  at  the  handle  end,  and  often  has  a 
string  put  through  a  hole,  so  that  it  can  be  carried,  swung  on 
the  shepherd's  wrist,  or  over  his  shoulder.  The  shepherds 
about  Bethlehem  are  still  equipped  with  these  two  sticks,  the 
longer  one  with  a  crook  to  lift  out  the  sheep,  or  lambs  from  a 

'  Matt.  i8  :  12,  13. 


SHEPHERDS   AND    FLOCKS.  1 63 

hole  or  crevice  of  rock,  and  to  hold  up  at  the  entrance  of  the  fold 
as  the  sheep  pass  in  or  out,  and  are  counted  by  the  shepherd. 
Anciently  this  was  called  "passing  under  the  rod."^ 

247.  Sheep/olds. — The  Oriental  sheepfolds  differ  widely  in 
their  structure  and  character.  Often  now,  even  as  in  primitive 
times,  the  fold  is  in  a  large  and  convenient  cave,  in  the  hill  or 
mountain  side.  On  the  open  plains,  or  in  the  valleys,  the 
sheepfold  is  an  enclosure  of  low  walls  of  rough  stones,  on  the 
top  of  which  are  thorn  branches  placed  to  prevent  the  flock  from 
jumping  over,  and  to  keep  wild  beasts  and  robbers  from  getting 
in.  The  entrance  is  by  a  gate,  or  door,  from  which  the  sheep 
enter  and  go  out.  This  door  is  barred  by  the  master  when  one 
flock  occupies  a  fold.  In  one  comer  of  this  enclosure  there  is 
a  shelter,  either  a  building  or  a  comer  roofed  over  to  protect  the 
flock  from  storms.  Oftentimes  several  shepherds  and  flocks 
occupy  the  same  fold  to  protect  themselves  from  robbers  more 
securely.  Then,  one  shepherd  watches  part  of  the  night  with  a 
dog,  and  the  other  shepherds  rest  and  sleep,  taking  turns  in 
watching.  Or,  they  may  employ  a  ''bowwab"  or  porter,  to  oare 
for  the  flocks  and  to  guard  the  gate.  The  porter  will  open  the 
gate  for  one  of  the  shepherds  only.  Thus,  it  is  said,  "He  that 
entereth  in  by  the  door  is  the  shepherd  of  the  sheep.  To  him  the 
porter  openeth."  -  In  the  morning  each  shepherd  calls  for  his 
flock,  and  they  hear,  and  follow  him.  There  may  be  a  thou- 
sand or  ten  thousand  sheep  mixed  together,  yet  every  shepherd 
can  quickly  separate  his  flock  from  all  the  rest  by  calling  to 
them.  As  the  flock  enters  the  fold  at  night,  the  shepherd  stands 
at  the  door  and  counts  his  sheep  one  by  one  as  they  pass  under 
his  staff,  or  he  may  do  this  when  they  come  out  to  be  led  forth  to 
the  pasture  in  the  morning.  It  is  an  interesting  sight  to  watch 
the  shepherds  "telhng"  their  respective  flocks,  and  to  see  how 
the  sheep  wiU  untangle  themselves  from  the  mass  and  come 
forth,  those  only  coming  which  belong  to  the  flock  of  the  shep- 
herd who  is  making  the  call. 

Mr.  Hanauer  says  such  sheep-cotes,  or  folds,  are  found  all 

'  Ezek.  10  :  37;  Lev.  27  :  32.  »  John  10  :  2,  3. 


1 64  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

over  Syria,  "many  have  been  used  for  thousands  of  years,  as  is 
evident  from  the  enormous  accumulation  of  sheep's  manure, 
sometimes  several  feet  deep,  on  their  floors.  ...  In  the  summer 
when  the  pasture  close  to  the  towns  and  villages  is  exhausted, 
the  sheep  are  led  further  afield,  at  some  distance  from  their 
village,  and  are  folded  in  caves  which  generally  have  a  small 
enclosure  built  of  large  stones  in  front  of  the  entrance,  and 
serving  as  a  bivouacking  place  for  the  shepherds, . . .  who  'were 
abiding  in  the  field,  keeping  watch  over  their  flocks  by  night.'  * 
The  folds  in  towns  or  hamlets  consist  of  regular  buildings,  com- 
prising a  row  of  vaults  or  chambers  occupying  one  side  of  a 
courtyard,  protected  by  a  stone  wall,  in  which  is  one  door  only, 
locked  at  night,  the  key  being  held  by  the  porter." 

248.  Flocks. — Sheep  abound  in  numbers  and  variety  in 
Oriental  lands.  The  Arab  tribes  of  the  Adwan  and  the  Beni 
Sakk'r  tribes  have  great  flocks  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan.  Thus, 
Dr.  Tristram  speaks  of  riding  mile  after  mile  "through  flocks, 
countless  as  the  sand,  while  winding  up  the  gently  sloping  valley. 
In  the  open  spaces  among  the  temples  at  Rabbah  were  flocks 
of  sheep  and  goats  at  night,  whose  bleating  was  almost  deafen- 
ing." Thomson  tells  of  the  gixat  flocks  which  were  driven 
over  from  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  to  the  seaboard  in  1853, 
and  of  the  vast  numbers  of  these  flocks  when  they  set  out  from 
the  distant  deserts.  "The  northern  plains  literally  swarm  with 
sheep." 

249.  "Broad-tailed^^  Sheep. — From  time  immemorial  the 
sheep  has  been  known  as  a  domesticated  animal.  There  are 
species  of  Oriental  wild  sheep,  but  they  are  not  apparently  of 
the  same  family  as  the  domestic  sheep.  In  Syria  now  there 
are  two  kinds  of  sheep,  one  with  short  fine  wool  and  short 
small  legs.  But  the  common  Syrian  sheep  is  tall,  with  a  larger 
frame,  and  a  long  Roman  nose.  This  breed  also  is  marked  by  a 
remarkable  development  of  the  rump,  or  tail,  from  which  they 
are  sometimes  called  "broad-tailed  sheep."  These  were 
noticed  in  early  times  by  Herodotus  and  Aristarchus,  who  greatly 

>  Luke  2  :  8. 


SHEPHERDS   AND   FLOCKS.  1 65 

exaggerated  this  characteristic  of  the  sheep.  Their  accounts 
were  magnified,  and  were  presented  in  some  Bible  dictionaries 
of  our  day.  These  erroneous  descriptions  were  pointed  out  years 
ago  by  Doctors  Van  Lennep  and  Thomson.  The  broad- tailed 
sheep  were  early  known  in  Arabia,  where  Herodotus  heard  of 
them.  Harris,  a  traveler  of  a  century  ago,  and  Russell,  in  the 
history  of  Aleppo,  drew  a  picture  of  these  sheep  out  of  then:  im- 
aginations, whose  tails  were  of  so  prodigious  size  as  to  require 
to  be  supported  by  thin  boards,  under  which  were  toy  wheels, 
to  help  the  animal  in  carrying  them.  Of  course  this  story  is 
fanciful.  The  fat  is  really  a  growth  of  the  rump,  as  stated  in 
the  Bible,  rather  than  .of  the  tail  proper.  Neither  one  of  these 
ancient  authors  or  their  copyists  claim  to  have  ever  seen  such 
a  sheep  as  he  describes.  The  broad- tailed  sheep,  when  fully 
covered  with  wool,  has  a  comely  form,  for  the  wool  covers  the 
cushion  of  fat,  and  is  long,  so  that  this  peculiarity  would  not  be 
noticed.  It  is  only  when  the  sheep  has  been  just  shorn  that 
this  enlargement  of  the  rump,  or  tail,  is  to  be  seen.  Then  it 
appears  rather  as  a  large  cushion,  ending  in  a  somewhat  broad- 
ened tail,  but  not  long,  and  rarely  falling  below  the  knee  of  the 
hind  leg.  The  statement  of  the  broad  tails  of  Arabian  sheep, 
three  cubits,  if  not  more  long,  must  be  credited  to  Oriental 
imagination. 

250.  Fattening  Sheep. — "  The  people  have  a  curious  way  of 
fattening  the  sheep,"  says  Prof.  Post,  "in  order  to  make  the 
tail  grow  to  an  enormous  size,  that  they  may  try  out  the  fat, 
and  use  it  in  cooking  as  we  use  butter  or  lard.  Syria  and 
Palestine  are  full  of  mulberry  trees,  the  leaves  of  which  are  used 
in  the  spring-time  to  feed  the  silk-worms.  As  soon  as  the 
cocoons  are  spun,  each  family  buys  a  lamb,  and  commences 
to  fatten  it  on  mulberry  leaves.  But  the  sheep  would  not  of 
itself  eat  enough  to  make  it  as  fat  as  its  owner  wishes,  so  three 
times  a  day  the  mistress  of  the  house  sits  down  beside  the  sheep 
and  commences  to  feed  it  from  a  bushel  basket  of  mulberry 
leaves,  which  she  and  her  children  have  just  stripped  from  the 
trees.     She  crumples  a  handful  of  these  tender  leaves  in  her 


1 66  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

hands,  and  crowds  them  into  the  sheep's  mouth,  and  then 
actually  wags  the  creature's  jaws  until  the  morsel  is  chewed 
and  swallowed.  She  then  follows  one  handful  by  another  until 
the  basket  is  empty.  In  vain  does  the  poor  brute  roU  the  green 
ball  around  with  its  tongue,  and  try  to  push  it  and  her  fingers 
out  of  its  mouth.  With  her  palm  under  its  jaws,  and  the  thumb 
and  fingers  curled  around  in  the  comer  of  its  mouth,  in  the  place 
where  there  are  no  teeth,  she  works  the  jaws  and  pushes  back 
the  morsel  between  the  grinders,  until  the  sheep  fairly  pants 
with  fatigue,  and  only  gets  rest  when  the  appointed  meal  is 
over.  In  the  early  part  of  the  summer  the  mistress  of  the  house 
takes  him  daily  to  the  fountain  for  a  bath,  that  his  appetite  and 
power  of  digestion  may  be  revived.  But  as  the  months  roU  on, 
the  sheep  walks  more  and  more  clumsily,  and  finally,  he  lies 
down,  so  heavy  with  his  fat  tail  and  bloated  body,  that  he 
never  rises  again.  Still  she  brings  the  water  and  pours  it 
over  his  fleece  as  before,  and  continues  to  feed  him  until 
the  mulberry  leaves  are  gone.  Then  comes  the  great  day 
for  the  household  when  the  sheep  is  killed;  the  meat  cut  into 
small  pieces  and  boiled  down  in  the  fat,  and  the  whole  stored 
away  in  earthen  jars  for  the  winter,  the  only  animal  food,  except 
eggs  and  milk,  which  many  of  the  people  have  during  that  sea- 
son." 

251.  Shepherd  Dog. — The  Oriental  sheep  is  capable  of 
training,  some  of  them  becoming  special  favorites  of  the  shep- 
herd, always  near  him,  and  for  them  he  has  a  name  not  only, 
but  choice  bits  of  what  he  gathers  to  give  to  them  from  time  to 
time.  On  the  other  hand,  the  great  body  of  the  flock  in  Oriental 
lands,  as  elsewhere,  are  mere  woridlings,  nmning  from  bush  to 
bush,  tumbling  into  trouble  or  getting  lost,  and  giving  the  shep- 
herd no  end  of  anxiety  and  labor  to  keep  them  within  safe 
bounds.  These  sheep  are  often  brought  back  by  the  dogs, 
which  the  shepherd  sends  after  them.  Thomson  regards  these 
shepherd  dogs  of  Syria  as  lazy,  half-starved,  ill-conditioned, 
furious  barking,  mean  curs,  and  not  at  all  the  noble  animal 
known  to  us,  like  the  St.  Bernard  dog.     And  Tristram  says  that 


SHEPHERDS   AND   FLOCKS.  1 67 

the  sheep  dog  is  the  pariah  dog  of  the  town,  an  outlaw  and  scav- 
enger, but  attached  to  a  personal  owner  or  shepherd. 

The  sheep  are  also  cared  for  by  helpers,  who  aid  the  shep- 
herds. These  are  not  properly  hirelings,  for  they  share  in  the 
flock,  receiving  one-tenth  of  the  increase  as  their  portion.  The 
sheep  respond  to  a  peculiar  call  in  Arabic  like  "hoo  hoo," 
"ha  ha,"  or  "taa  taa."  They  hear  this  call  at  all  times  of  the 
day  and  respond  to  it,  and  they  also  are  quieted  if  they  hear  it  at 
night.  One  who  visited  a  shepherd  at  his  sheepfold  in  the  early 
night  watch,  heard  him  calling  out  "hoo  hoo,"  "taa  taa." 
This  he  said,  he  did  so  that  if  the  sheep  heard  the  prowling 
wolves,  they  would  be  quieted  by  hearing  the  shepherd's  voice, 
and  knowing  that  he  was  by  them  to  protect  them  from  the 
wolves. 

252.  The  Wool  and  Skin. — The  sheep  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  animals  to  the  Oriental;  its  wool  clothes  him,  its  milk 
feeds  him,  its  skin  protects  him  from  the  cold,  and  provides  him 
with  a  cloak  or  aba  in  which  he  can  traverse  the  wilderness  or 
the  mountains,  and  which  he  can  fold  about  him  as  he  lies  down 
at  night,  thus  providing  him  both  his  bed  and  his  covering,  and 
the  flesh  is  the  most  palatable  of  Oriental  dishes  for  food. 
From  eariiest  time  a  sheep  or  a  lamb,  without  blemish  from 
the  flock,  was  the  holiest  offering  man  could  make  in  sacrificial 
worship. 

253.  Black  Sheep  and  Goats. — "Most  Syrian  sheep  are  white, 
but  some  are  mottled  and  others  entirely  black,"  says  Mr. 
Hanauer.  The  black  sheep  are  from  Northern  Syria  and  the 
highlands  farther  north.  The  sheep  and  the  goats,  though  led 
out  by  the  same  shepherd,  belonging  to  the  same  flock,  and 
feeding  in  the  same  pasture  side  by  side,  do  not  mix;  they  enter 
the  fold  together,  but  once  within,  they  keep  separate. 

The  goats  are  bold,  venturesome,  very  playful,  and  often  give 
the  shepherd  trouble  by  clambering  to  dangerous  places  where 
he  cannot  follow;  and  break  into  crops  of  com  where  sheep 
blindly  follow.     They  are  also  headstrong  and  very  lusty. 

The  goats  most  common  in  Palestine  are  the  Capra  mam- 


l68  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

bricas,  remarkable  for  their  long  pendant  ears,^  stout  re- 
curved horns,  and  long,  black  silky  hair.  The  goats  used 
for  milking  purposes  at  Damascus  are  of  a  different  breed, 
somewhat  larger  than  the  goats  of  Palestine,  of  a  tawny  and 
gray  color,  and  the  contour  of  the  head  is  very  peculiar,  with  a 
prominent  elevation  of  the  nasal  bone,  long  pendant  ears,  and 
very  short  horns. 

254.  Goats. — The  goat  thrives  on  the  mountains,  or  in  the 
hilly  countries,  where  there  is  Htde  pasture,  except  shrubs  and 
brushwood.  On  the  lowlands  and  wherever  there  is  grass,  the 
sheep  thrive  better,  and  are  better  adapted  to  the  region  than 
the  goat.  The  great  tablelands  and  plateaus  of  Arabia  and 
about  the  Lebanon  and  Mt.  Hermon  abound  with  flocks  of 
goats.  In  fact,  the  goat  has  in  large  measure  prevented  the 
spreading  of  the  forests,  having  extirpated  many  species  of 
trees  once  covering  the  hills  and  low  mountains  of  Syria  and 
Arabia. 

On  the  border  between  the  plains  and  plateaus,  sheep  and 
goats  are  often  seen  together.  In  a  measure,  they  mingle  with 
the  sheep,  but  when  folded  together  at  night,  the  goats  may  al- 
ways be  seen  in  separate  groups.  Even  around  wells  they  often 
are  by  themselves  as  by  instinct  keeping  apart  from  the  sheep. 
When  a  chance  stranger  comes  to  an  Arab  camp,  a  kid  of  the 
goats  is  the  usual  dish  at  his  entertainment. 

255.  Flocks  of  Goats. — Dr.  Tristram  reports  seeing  hundreds 
of  goats  at  a  village  under  Mt.  Hermon  gathered  for  the  night 
in  the  open  market  place.  "It  was  no  easy  matter,"  he  says, 
"to  thread  our  way  among  them,  the  goats  had  no  idea  of  mov- 
ing for  belated  intruders.  Every  street  and  open  space  is  filled 
with  the  goats,  and  women,  boys,  and  girls  are  everywhere  milk- 
ing in  small  pewter  pots."  The  goat  not  only  gives  its  milk  and 
flesh  for  the  Oriental,  but  its  skin  supplies  him  with  botties  for 
conveying  water,  wine,  milk,  and  oil.  Stone  jars  are  employed 
for  storing  liquids  in  pits  or  cellars,  and  keeping  a  supply  of 
water  within   the  houses.     But  goat-skins  are   the  common 

'  Amos  3  :  12. 


Oriental  and  Donkey. 

GOAT   HEKDER    IN   DISTANCE. 

(Copyright  by  Underwood  Sr  Underwood,  New  York.) 


P.  1 68 


Shepherd  and  Flock,  Moab. 

(Copyright  by  Under-wood  &  Underwood,  New  Yori.) 


SHEPHERDS  AND  FLOCKS.  169 

"bottles"  used  for  conveyance  of  liquids  from  one  place  to  an- 
other. The  skin  of  the  goat  is  tanned  with  the  hair  on;  such 
tanneries  where  bottles  are  made  are  found  near  Hebron. 
The  hair  on  the  bottles  preserves  them  from  injury  and  friction 
in  traveling. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  goats  in  Palestine,  the  Syrian 
goats  being  usually  of  two  marked  kinds,  one  with  short  ears, 
sometimes  nearly  erect,  as  in  the  wild  goats  of  the  north,  and  the 
other  with  long  ears  pendant,  sometimes  reaching  lower  than  the 
animal's  nose.  The  goat  has  recurved  horns.  It  is  large  and 
usually  black,  with  long  hair.  The  hair  is  longer  and  more 
silky  and  the  build  of  the  animal  more  compact  than  in  Western 
countries.  In  some  Oriental  lands,  the  mohair  goat  is  raised 
for  the  sake  of  its  long  silky  hair.  But  it  is  not  so  well  adapted 
to  the  rough  bushy  and  thorny  districts  as  the  common  goat. 
The  wild  goat  of  Arabia  and  Syria  is  somewhat  similar  to  those 
of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees  and  are  called  Beden  by  the  Arabs. 
The  wild  goat  is  shy  and  wary,  keeping  to  the  mountains,  its 
color  resembling  that  of  the  foliage  and  rocky  regions  which  is 
its  habitat,  making  it  difficult  to  be  seen,  so  that  tourists  rarely 
discover  them.  The  goats  were  once  abundant  by  the  Dead  Sea 
near  Engedi  (Ain  Jidy),  which  means  "fountain  of  the  kid." 

Mr.  Haddad  counts  the  flesh  of  the  goats  not  very  palatable. 
The  milk  is  delicious  and  furnishes  a  very  rich  cheese.  Some 
Orientals  have  a  superstition  that  when  they  go  out  of  the  house 
in  the  morning,  if  they  meet  a  lamb  or  a  sheep,  it  promises  good 
fortune.  If  they  first  meet  a  goat,  it  v^dU  be  a  day  of  trouble  and 
disappointment.  So,  too,  when  a  flock  of  sheep  passes  an  Arab's 
path  he  is  pleased  because  he  thinks  it  a  good  omen,  but  if  he 
passes  a  goat  it  is  a  bad  omen. 

256.  Wild  Goat. — The  goat  is  wi\6.  in  disposition  and  quarrel- 
some. He  is  mischievous  and  destructive  to  orchards  and 
fruits.  He  is  quick  and  active,  cHmbing  up  the  rocks  and  over 
steep  places.  The  common  people  say  goats  are  "Jinnies," 
meaning  they  are  possessed  with  evil  spirits,  they  are  so  mis- 
chievous and  wicked.    They  do  not  multipy  as  rapidly  as  sheep. 


lyo  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

They  fight  over  their  food,  and  wander  into  forbidden  fields, 
and  are  destructive  of  grain,  as  well  as  fruit. 

The  Hebrews,  Hke  the  modem  Arabs,  had  several  terms  for 
the  goat.  He  was  called  Ya'el,  meaning  climber,  and  Sa'eer, 
"hairy  goat."  Goats  were  an  important  part  of  the  wealth 
of  the  old  patriarchs,  and  were  used  for  food  and  for  sacrifice. 
Abram  offered  a  she-goat;  Jacob  sent  presents  to  Esau  of  two 
hundred  she-goats  and  twenty  he-goats,'  and  Nabal  had  three 
thousand  sheep  and  one  thousand  goats.-  Laban  had  a  large 
possession  of  goats.^ 

257.  Separating  Flocks. — Tristram  describes  a  scene  which 
illustrates  our  Lord's  comparison.  "The  shepherd  was  pick- 
ing his  way  down  a  precipitous  ridge,  toward  a  well-known 
cavern,  followed  by  his  flocks  and  herds.  The  sun  was  setting, 
and  the  sheep  quietly  following  the  shepherd  along  the  beaten 
and  more  easy  paths,  while  the  goats  gambolled  and  skipped 
from  rock  to  rock  a  little  higher  up  on  the  mountain  side,  still 
keeping  in  line  with  the  sheep,  but  dehghting  to  exhibit  their 
prowess.  When  the  cave  was  reached,  they  scrambled  down 
by  the  most  impossible  routes,  often  leaping  in  over  the  backs 
of  their  more  sedate  companions."  In  the  final  separation  of 
the  righteous  and  the  wicked  it  is  said,  "He  shall  separate  them 
one  from  another,  as  a  shepherd  divideth  his  sheep  from  the 
goats:  And  he  shall  set  the  sheep  on  his  right  hand,  but  the 
goats  on  the  left."*  The  elder  brother  in  the  parable  of  the 
prodigal  son  complains,  "Thou  never  gavest  me  a  kid,  that 
I  might  make  merry  with  my  friends,"^  illustrating  how  com- 
mon it  was  to  have  a  kid  for  an  entertainment,  or  a  feast, 
even  in  the  days  of  our  Lord.  And  much  earlier,  Rebekah 
tells  her  son  Jacob,  "Fetch  me  from  thence  (the  flock)  two 
good  kids  of  the  goats;  and  I  will  make  them  savoury  meat  for 
thy  father,  such  as  he  loveth."  ^  When  the  angel  appeared  to 
Gideon,  he  "made  ready  a  kid,"'  and  Manoah  likewise  said 
unto  the  angel,  "Let  us  detain  thee,  until  we  shall  have  made 

>  Gen.  32  :  14.  '  i  Sam.  2:;  :  2.  '  Gen.  30  :  33-  *  Matt.  25  :  32.  3i- 

•LuVeis:2p.  'Gen.  27:9.  '  Judg.  6  :  19. 


SHEPHERDS   AND    FLOCKS.  171 

ready  a  kid  for  thee."^  The  old  proverb  for  prosperity  is, 
"thou  shalt  have  goats'  milk  enough  for  thy  food,  for  the  food 
of  thy  household,  and  for  the  maintenance  for  thy  maidens."^ 
And  again,  "The  goats  are  the  price  of  the  field."  ^ 

Sheep,  goats,  flocks,  and  shepherds  are  mentioned  or 
alluded  to  over  five  hundred  (523)  times  in  the  Bible,  and 
herds  over  fifty  times.  The  prophet  condemns  the  shepherds 
in  his  day,  because  they  "fed  themselves  and  fed  not  my  flock."  * 
The  shepherd  was  an  "abomination  unto  the  Egyptians"  in 
the  time  of  Joseph.^ 

In  the  care  of  his  people,  Jehovah  is  compared  to  an  Oriental 
shepherd.  The  greatest  poem  in  Hebrew  or  any  other  litera- 
ture is  the  Shepherd  Psalm.  It  has  been  translated  into  more 
languages,  read  by  more  people,  treasured  in  more  memories 
and  in  more  hearts  throughout  the  world  than  any  other  poem 
known  in  the  literature  of  the  world.  So  the  Psalmist  calls 
Jehovah  his  shepherd,  "The  Lord  is  my  shepherd."^  "Give 
ear,  O  shepherd  of  Israel,  thou  that  leadest  Joseph  like  a  flock."' 
Jehovah  is  said  to  "feed  his  flock  like  a  shepherd:  he  shall  gather 
the  lambs  with  his  arm,  and  carry  them  in  his  bosom."  ^  He 
"made  his  own  people  to  go  forth  like  sheep."*  The  people 
are  called  "Sheep  of  thy  pasture."  ^^  Jesus  calls  himself  "The 
good  Shepherd,"  "  and  the  Lord  Jesus  is  spoken  of  as  "That 
great  Shepherd  of  the  sheep." ^^  And  "the  Shepherd  and 
Bishop  of  your  souls."  '^ 

258.  Wealth  in  Flocks  and  Herds. — The  wealth  of  the  Oriental 
in  ancient  times  consisted  largely  in  flocks  and  herds  as  at  this 
day.  Abram  "had  sheep,  and  oxen,  and  camels,"  and  "was 
very  rich  in  cattle,  in  silver,  and  in  gold."  "  Lot  was  also 
rich  in  "  flocks,  and  herds,  and  tents."  ^^  Isaac  was  the  envy 
of  the  Philistines,  because  he  had  such  immense  flocks,  herds, 
and  "store  of  servants."  '®     Before  his  afliiction.  Job  is  said  to 

'  Judg.  13:11;.  s  Prov.  27  :  27.  •  Prov.  27  :  26. 

*  Ezek.  34  :  8.  Compare  Zech.  10  :  3;  11  :  3,  5,  8.  '  Gen.  46  :  34. 

•  Ps.  23  :  I.                                        7  Ps.  80  -.J.   '  8  Jsniah  40  :  II. 
»  Ps.  78  :  S2.                                       '"  Ps.  70  :  13.  "  John  20  :  14. 

"  Ileb.  13  :  20.  '•''  I  Peter  2  :  25;  see  i  Peter  =:  :  4. 

"  Gen.  12  :  16;  13  :  2;  24  :  35.       "  Gen.  13  :  s.  "  Gen.  26  :  14. 


172  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

have  had  seven  thousand  sheep,  three  thousand  camels,  five 
hundred  yoke  of  oxen,  and  five  hundred  asses;  and  after  his 
trial  his  possessions  in  flocks  and  herds,  sheep,  camels,  and  oxen 
were  doubled.^  The  country  east  of  the  Jordan  had  rich  pas- 
ture in  olden  times,  sustaining  great  flocks,  perhaps  greater  than 
in  modern  times.  Mesha,  King  of  Moab,  gave  to  Israel's 
king  as  tribute  a  hundred  thousand  lambs,  and  a  hundred 
thousand  rams  in  wool  or  in  fleece.-  An  Arab  Sheikh  of  the 
Beni  Sakk'r  tribe  boasted  to  Dr.  Tristram  in  modem  times  that 
he  pastured  thirty  thousand  in  his  flock  on  the  same  plains  of 
Moab.  The  Hagarenes  also,  to  the  east  of  Moab  and  Ammon, 
claimed  to  have  lost  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  sheep, 
fifty  thousand  camels,  and  two  thousand  asses  in  a  war  with  the 
Reubenites.^  Israel's  great  king,  Solomon,  is  said  to  have 
offered  in  sacrifice  at  the  dedication  of  the  temple  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  sheep  and  twenty-two  thousand  oxen.* 
And  later  King  Asa  offered  seven  thousand  sheep  at  one  time.* 
King  Hezekiah  pro\dded  for  a  great  passover  feast,  following  a 
rededication  of  the  temple,  seven  thousand  sheep,  one  thousand 
oxen,  besides  ten  thousand  sheep  furnished  by  the  princes  of 
Israel  for  the  same  occasion.®  The  wandering  Arabs  brought 
tribute  to  the  king  of  Judah  seven  thousand  seven  hundred 
rams  and  seven  thousand  seven  hundred  he-goats.'  Nor  are 
the  sacred  writers  alone  in  telling  of  the  wealth  of  the  ancients  in 
flocks.  Homer  and  Hesiod  sing  of  the  great  wealth  in  flocks 
and  herds  which  great  men  possessed.  In  traveling  among  the 
Arab  tribes  in  1846  Wilson  saw  flocks  with  more  than  fifty 
thousand  goats  and  upward  of  twenty  thousand  camels. 

259.  Slicaring. — Sheep  shearing  now,  and  in  olden  time, 
was  an  occasion  of  joy  and  merr}'-making.  After  his  wife's 
death,  Judah  being  comforted,  went  up  to  his  sheep  shearing.' 
Nabal,  the  churl,  was  ha\ang  a  roUicking  time  at  sheep  shear- 
ing when  David  cafled  upon  him,  and  interrupted  his  revels 
and  he  was  too  drunk  to  treat  the  coming  king  ci\'illy.    Had 

'  Job.  I  :  3;  42  :  12.       '2  Kings  3:4.       '  i  Chron.  5:21. 
♦2  Chron.  7:3.         '2  Chron.  is  :  n.     '2  Chron.  30  :  24. 
'  2  Chron.  17  :  n.        *Gen.  38  :  12. 


SHEPHERDS   AND   FLOCKS.  1 73 

it  not  been  for  his  more  discreet  wife,  it  would  have  fared  hard 
with  Nabel.^  When  his  brother  Amnon,  was  "merry  with 
wine  "  at  a  sheep  shearing,  Absalom  plotted  to  have  him  assas- 
sinated? The  wool  of  the  sheep  was  used  for  clothing,  the 
first  fleece  being  devoted  to  the  priest  in  olden  times.^  The 
curtains  of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness  were  made  of 
dyed  goats'  wool,  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet.*  So  common  was  it 
to  have  fine  clothes  made  of  lambs'  wool  that  it  became  a 
proverb,  "Lambs  are  for  thy  clothing."^  In  Lemuel's  song 
of  the  model  housewife,  she  is  commended  because,  "She 
seeketh  wool,  and  flax,  and  worketh  willingly  with  her  hands." ' 

260.  Trumpets.' — The  male  sheep  have  recurved  horns,  and 
these  were  used  for  trumpets  by  the  soldiers  marching  about 
the  city  of  Jericho.'' 

The  horns  were  also  hollowed  out  and  used  to  carry  oil  by 
the  prophets  and  the  priests,  as  in  the  days  of  Samuel.^  Even 
the  trumpets  used  by  the  priests,  which  were  made  of  silver, 
may  also  have  imitated  the  shape  of  the  ram's  hom.^  For 
the  seven  trumpets  used  by  the  priests  at  the  siege  of  Jericho 
were  of  rams'  horns.^"  Similar  trumpets  were  used  by  Gideon's 
Band  in  the  capture  of  the  Midianite  host."  And  the  Hebrew 
term  for  trumpet,  which  was  used  to  call  the  people  together 
at  Sinai,  is  Yobel,  which  signifies  a  ram's  horn. 

261.  Shepherd's  Peril. — The  danger  of  the  shepherd's  life  is 
further  illustrated  by  the  story  of  David,  when  he  went  to  the 
Philistine  army,  and  proposed  to  meet  the  champion  giant 
Goliath.  "Thy  servant  was  keeping  his  father's  sheep;  and 
when  there  came  a  lion,  or  a  bear,  and  took  a  lamb  out  of  the 
flock,  I  went  out  after  him,  and  smote  him,  and  delivered  it  out 
of  his  mouth;  and  when  he  arose  against  me,  I  caught  him 
by  his  beard,  and  smote  him,  and  slew  him.  Thy  servant 
smote  both  the  lion  and  the  bear."  ^^  This  danger  is  implied 
by  the  prophet  who  refers  to  the  lop-eared  goats  and  sheep. 

>  I  Sam.  25.  2  2  Sam.  13  :  23,  28.  '  Deut.  18  :  4. 

*  E.x.  26  :  7;  36  :  14.  '  Prov.  27  :  26.  ^  Prov.  31  :  13. 

'  Josh.  6:4.  *  I  Sam.  16:1.  "  Num.  10  :  2-10. 

>"  Josh.  6  :  4,  8,  13.  »  Judg.  7  :  8,  ao.  "  i  Sam.  17  :  34-36. 


174  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

Thus,  "As  the  shepherd  rescueth  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  lion 
two  legs,  or  a  piece  of  an  ear,  so  shall  the  children  of  Israel 
be  rescued  that  sit  in  Samaria  in  the  corner  of  a  couch,  and 
on  the  silken  cushions  of  a  bed."  ^ 

262.  Watering  Flocks. — The  watering  of  the  flocks  in  mod- 
ern times  is  often  done  by  women,  although,  as  in  olden  time, 
men  are  required  to  do  the  heavier  work  or  to  defend  the  flock. 
Thus,  it  is  said  that  Jacob  first  met  his  future  wife,  Rachel,  at  the 
well:  "He  looked,  and,  behold,  a  well  in  the  field,  and,  lo, 
three  flocks  of  sheep  lying  there  by  it;  for  out  of  that  well 
they  watered  the  flocks:  and  the  stone  upon  the  well's  mouth 
was  great.  And  thither  were  all  the  flocks  gathered ;  and  they 
rolled  the  stone  from  the  well's  mouth,  and  watered  the  sheep, 
and  put  the  stone  again  upon  the  well's  mouth  in  its  place.  .  ,  . 
And  he  said,  Lo,  it  is  yet  high  day,  neither  is  it  time  that  the  cattle 
should  be  gathered  together:  water  ye  the  sheep,  and  go  and 
feed  them.  And  they  said,  We  cannot,  until  all  the  flocks  be 
gathered  together,  and  they  roll  the  stone  from  the  well's 
mouth;  then  we  water  the  sheep.  While  he  was  yet  speaking 
with  them,  Rachel  came  with  her  father's  sheep;  for  she  kept 
them.  .  .  .  Jacob  went  near,  and  rolled  the  stone  from  the 
well's  mouth,  and  watered  the  flock  of  Laban  his  mother's 
brother.  And  Jacob  kissed  Rachel,  and  lifted  up  his  voice,  and 
wept.   And  Jacob  told  Rachel  that  he  was  her  father's  brother."  ^ 

A  similar  scene  may  be  witnessed  among  Syrian  and  Arab 
shepherds  to-day  at  any  spring  or  well  on  the  plains.  Thus, 
a  traveler  of  half  a  century  ago  says,  "We  came  upon  a  well 
and  a  watering  trough,  where  several  shepherds  had  gathered 
their  flocks  together  to  drink.  The  quietness  of  the  valley, 
contrasted  with  the  rumors  of  danger  from  the  Bedouins, 
reminding  us  of  the  passage  in  Judges,  'Far  from  the  noise 
of  archers,  in  the  places  of  drawing  water.' "^  At  another 
place  the  same  travelers  came  to  a  fine  flowing  weU.  "The 
water  was  cold  and  pleasant.  Some  Syrian  shepherds  had 
gathered   their    flocks  around   the   well.     There   were   many 

'  Amos  3  :  12.  '  Gen.  29  :  2-12.  '  Judg.  5:11. 


SHEPHERDS   AND   FLOCKS.  1 75 

hundreds  of  goats;  some  drinking  out  of  the  troughs,  some 
reclining  till  the  noon-day  heat  should  be  past."  This,  too, 
reminded  the  travelers  of  how  the  Lord  promises  to  refresh 
weary  souls,  and  how  Jehovah  makes  his  people  to  rest. 

The  sheep  and  the  lambs  are  symbols  of  meekness,  patience, 
gentleness,  and  quiet  endurance  in  suffering.  Throughout 
the  Old  Testament,  as  in  the  New,  Jesus  Christ  the  Redeemer 
of  mankind  is  set  forth  as  the  sacrifice,  the  lamb  slain  from 
the  foundation  of  the  world,  brought  to  the  slaughter,  suffer- 
ing with  submission,  the  one  offering  for  sin.  The  multitude 
of  sacrifices  mentioned  throughout  the  Old  Testament  signified 
and  pointed  to  this  one  great  sacrifice,  when  Christ  should 
bear  the  sin  of  the  world,  and  should  offer  a  redemption  for  all 
the  race,  a  redemption  from  all  condemnation. 


XXII. 


CATTLE  AND  CAMELS. 


To  the  Oriental  of  to-day  the  mule  is  a  beast  of  burden. 
The  patient  ox  plows  his  field,  the  horse  speeds  him  over  the 
hills  and  valleys,  and  the  camel  is  still,  as  of  old,  the  "ship  of 
the  desert."  Domesticated  cattle  and  camels,  exclusive  of 
sheep  and  goats,  are  named  or  alluded  to  about  nine  hundred 
times  in  Scripture. 

263.  The  Ox-herds. — In  modem  times,  chief  among  the 
domestic  cattle  is  the  ox.  All  the  cattle  of  Palestine  are 
generally  small  in  size,  with  short  horns,  shaggy  short  legs, 
usually  black,  or  red,  or  brown  in  color,  rarely  piebald,  or  with 
white  spots.  They  are  not  abundant  in  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula, 
but  are  found  on  the  plains  of  Sharon,  Akka,  Philistia,  and 
about  Dothan,  as  well  as  abundant  east  of  the  Jordan  in  Gilead, 
Moab,  and  Bashan-land.  They  are  less  common  in  Central 
Palestine.  The  Hebrew  term  for  cattle,  Miqiieh,  signifies 
primarily  "possessions."  So  much  of  the  wealth  of  early 
Hebrews  consisted  of  herds  and  flocks  that  the  same  term  was 
used  to  designate  "possessions"  and  "cattle."  A  herd  is  often 
made  up  by  the  cattle  of  a  number  of  villagers  in  the  same  town, 
who  employ  a  herdsman  to  care  for  them  in  the  pastures  near 
by  or  some  distance  away.  It  is  a  rough  Ufe  that  the  herds- 
men have,  defending  their  charge  against  robbers,  wolves,  and 
against  wandering  away.  Van  Lennep  describes  such  a  herd 
owned  by  villagers  going  out  to  the  pasture:  "There  are  the 
oxen,  the  bulls,  the  cows,  and  the  calves  of  various  ages;  the 
she-asses  and  their  colts,  with  perhaps  some  superannuated 
paterfamilias  of  a  jackass,  no  longer  able  to  work,  and  favored 
with  his  board;  there  is  the  huge  and  ponderous  bufifalo,  ac- 
companied by  its  calf,  whose  clumsy  gambols  excite  the  admira- 
tion of  the  whole  drove."  He  often  watched  the  herd  return 
176 


CATTLE   AND   CAMELS.  177 

at  night;  "It  is  the  merriest  hour  of  the  day;  for  all  the  little 
children  then  rush  out  to  meet  the  drove,  for  a  gambol  and  a 
chase  home,  each  after  his  own  pet  lamb,  calf,  or  colt.  Horses 
and  camels  are  rarely  herded  promiscuously  with  other  ani- 
mals, but  fed  by  themselves." 

264.  Wealth  In. — Catde  are  often  branded  upon  their 
haunches  or  shoulders  now,  as  we  know  they  were  thousands 
of  years  ago,  from  representations  on  Egyptian  monuments. 
The  buffalo  is  believed  to  have  come  from  Eastern  Asia,  either 
India  or  Hindustan.  The  homed  catde  of  Eastern  Asia  are 
large  bodied,  but  short  legged,  and  have  a  hump  upon  the 
foreshoulders,  and  are  believed  to  be  of  a  different  species  from 
those  of  Western  Asia. 

Oxen  and  bullocks  were  perhaps  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
wealth  of  Oriental  peoples  in  olden  times  than  now.  The 
aposde  asks:  "Doth  God  take  care  for  oxen?"  "Thou  shalt 
not  muzzle  the  ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  com."  *  The 
Mosaic  law  also  provided  that  on  the  Sabbath  "Thine  ox  and 
thine  ass  may  rest."  ^  The  prophet  Elisha  "was  plowing  with 
twelve  yoke  of  oxen  before  him,  and  he  with  the  twelfth,"  when 
Elijah  met  him  and  called  him  to  the  prophetical  work.^  The 
purchase  of  oxen  was  made  an  excuse  for  not  responding  to  a 
social  invitation:  "I  have  bought  five  yoke  of  oxen,  and  I  go 
to  prove  them."*  The  cows  and  the  calves  were  trained  to  the 
yoke  in  early  times.  Thus,  when  the  lords  of  the  Philistines 
wanted  to  send  back  the  ark,  they  said;  "Make  a  new  cart,  and 
take  two  milch  kine,  on  which  there  hath  come  no  yoke,  and 
tie  the  kine  to  the  cart,  and  bring  their  calves  home  from  them: 
and  take  the  ark  of  the  Lord  and  lay  it  upon  the  cart."*  And 
the  prophet  calls  Ephraim  "An  heifer  that  is  taught,  and 
loveth  to  tread  out  the  com."  ® 

265.  In  Sacrifice. — While  bullocks  were  offered  in  sacrifice, 
and  the  flesh  was  eaten  by  the  priests  when  not  offered  as  a 
burnt  offering,  it  was  not  so  common  to  use  the  flesh  with  ordi- 

•  I  Cor.  9  :  0;  Deut.  25  :  4.  '  Ex.  23  :  12.  '  i  Kings  19  :  19. 

*  Luke  14  :  19.  6  j  Sam.  6  :  7,  8.         '  Hosea  10  :  11. 

12 


178  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

nary  meals  as  it  is  with  us.  It  is  rare  now  that  beef  is  eaten  by 
the  Oriental.  When  he  eats  flesh  the  Oriental  prefers  mutton. 
The  frequency  with  which  domestic  animals  were  used  in  sacri- 
fice is  illustrated  in  the  time  of  Saul,  who  excused  himself  from 
the  charge  of  the  prophet,  saying,  "The  people  spared  the  best 
of  the  sheep  and  of  the  oxen,  to  sacrifice  unto  the  Lord  thy  God."  ^ 
Generally  a  young  biillock,  or  a  heifer,  or  a  lamb  was  offered  in 
sacrifice. 

266.  Stall  Fed. — I  have  already  noticed  the  number  that  were 
sacrificed  at  the  dedication  of  the  temple  and  on  other  festal 
occasions  by  the  kings  of  Israel.  It  is  clear,  too,  that  in  our 
Lord's  time  cattle  were  a  common  possession  of  the  people, 
"Doth  not  each  one  of  you  on  the  sabbath  loose  his  ox  or  his 
ass  from  the  stall,  and  lead  him  away  to  watering?"^  And 
the  prophet  Malachi  describes  the  prosperity  of  Israel  to  come  by 
saying,  "Ye  shall  .  .  .  grow  up  as  calves  of  the  stall." ^  Stall- 
fed  cattle  are  often  referred  to  even  earlier:  "Better  is  a  dinner 
of  herbs  where  love  is,  than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  therewith."  * 
The  princes  of  old  are  called  so  luxurious  that  "The  calves  out 
of  the  midst  of  the  stall "  they  could  only  eat.* 

267.  Mule  and  Ass. — The  mule  is  no  longer  the  royal  and 
highly  esteemed  animal  that  he  once  was  counted  to  be  by  the 
Oriental.  He  has  been  degraded  now  to  a  beast  of  burden,  aided 
by  the  donkey,  and  is  usually  in  modem  times  classed  with 
that  ignoble  beast.  But  in  former  times  a  certain  variety  of  the 
mule  and  the  ass  were  regarded  as  superior  and  noble  beasts, 
upon  which  only  princes  and  kings  rode.  Persons  of  wealth 
and  of  quality  also  made  a  journey  upon  these  animals.  Thus, 
it  is  said  of  Abram  that  he  saddled  his  ass  to  go  to  Mt.  Moriah.^ 
When  called  by  the  king,  Balaam  proceeded  on  a  similar  animal 
from  Chaldea  to  Moab.''  A  prophet  also  came  from  Judah 
to  Bethel  in  this  manner.^  Thirty  sons  of  a  noble  judge  rode 
on  these  colts,  indicating  their  wealth  and  dignity.''  And  sev- 
enty others  of  the  family  of  a  judge  rode  on  like  animals  as  a 

*  I  Sam.  IS  :  15.  '  Luke  13  :  15.  '  Malachi  4  :  2. 

*  Prov.  15  :  17;  See  i  Kings  4  :  23.  '  Amos  6:4.  •  Gen.  22  :  3. 

*  Num.  22  :  21.  '  I  Kings  13  :  23.       '  Judg.  10  :  4. 


CATTLE   AND   CAMELS.  1 79 

mark  of  their  wealth  and  rank.'  In  like  manner  did  the  prince 
Ahithophel  and  Mephibosheth  ride  on  a  like  royal  beast.^ 
Noble  women  were  also  accustomed  to  ride  in  this  manner,  as 
Zipporah  and  Achsah,  the  daughter  of  Caleb.^  Abigail,  who 
became  the  wife  of  David,  first  met  him  riding  on  her  royal 
beast.  The  noble  Shunnamite  woman  set  oflf  to  find  Ehsha  in 
a  similar  manner.*  White  asses  were  a  pecuhar  mark  of  great 
dignity  and  high  rank.  Deborah  describes  the  judges  as  "Ye 
that  ride  on  white  asses."  ^  Finally,  the  prophet  declared 
of  the  Messiah,  "Behold,  thy  King  cometh  unto  thee:  he  is  just, 
and  having  salvation;  lowly,  and  riding  upon  an  ass,  and  upon  a 
colt  the  foal  of  an  ass."  "  And  this  prophecy  was  fulfilled  at  the 
time  of  the  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem.'' 

268.  llie  Horse. — The  horse  is  not  peculiar  to  Oriental 
lands.  Though  from  time  immemorial  it  has  been  known,  it 
is  probably  more  widely  used  now  throughout  Western  Asia  and 
some  other  Oriental  lands  than  it  was  three  thousand  years  ago. 
The  finest  and  most  celebrated  race  of  horses  is  the  Arabian. 
Persians,  Kurds,  and  Circassians  are  also  famous  horsemen,  and 
are  noted  for  their  fine  horses,  each  being  prized  for  some  pecul- 
iar qualities.  Thus,  the  Kurd  has  long  been  famous  as  a  bold, 
dashing,  and  skilful  rider,  and  his  horse  equally  famous  for 
its  strength,  endurance,  and  quick  response  to  his  master's 
will.  The  Circassian  horse  is  usually  smaller  than  others, 
but  very  alert  and  hardy  in  mountaineer  work.  Women  of 
the  Orient  now  usually  ride  astride,  and  seldom  sideways,  as 
vvith  us. 

269.  Wheeled  Carriages. — Chariots  and  wheeled  carriages 
drawn  by  horses  are  rarely  seen  in  Western  Asia  or  in  Africa. 
A  few  of  foreign  manufacture  have  been  introduced  there  dur- 
ing the  last  generation,  but  long  ago  they  were  m.ore  common. 
The  barbarian  from  the  East  and  the  South  swept  over  these 
lands  of  Western  Asia,  destroying  temple  and  palace,  chariot 

»  Judg.  la  :  14.  22  Sam.  17  :  23;  10  ;  26. 

•Ex.  4  :  20;  Judg.  I  :  14.  <  i  Sam.  21;  :  20;  2  Kinirs  4  :  24. 

•  Judg.  5  :  10.  «  Zerh.  o  :  o. 

^  Matt  ai  :  5.    See  Mark  11  :  4;  Luke  19  :  30;  Isaiah  62  :  11.    Compare  John  12  :  15. 


l8o  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LAIRDS. 

and  chariot-roads,  and  displacing  the  comforts  of  civilization 
by  the  rude  and  raw  conditions  of  a  barbarian  life.  Native 
two-wheeled  clumsy  carts  were  found  in  India  by  the  British, 
and  are  still  seen  in  rural  sections. 

270.  War  Horse. — The  horse  is  mentioned  about  a  hundred 
and  forty  times  in  Scripture.  In  the  days  of  the  sacred  writers, 
as  now,  the  horse  was  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  power  in  war, 
and  as  a  terror  in  predatory  excursions  by  brigands  and  law- 
less bands  of  the  \vild  desert  tribes  rather  than  as  useful  in 
harness.  The  earliest  mention  of  chariots  and  horses  in  the 
Bible  relates,  however,  to  a  mission  of  mercy  and  peace.* 
While  the  horse  appears  as  a  widely  useful  animal  in  EgyjDt  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Jacob  and  Joseph,  yet  from  the  compara- 
tively late  appearance  of  figures  of  the  horse  in  Eg}^tian  sculp- 
ture, some  infer  that  it  was  not  known  in  Eg}'pt  before  the  period 
of  the  Hyksos  kings.  When  the  Hebrews  escaped  from  Egyp- 
tian bondage  they  were  pursued  by  six  hundred  chosen  chariots 
and  by  all  the  chariot  horses  and  horsemen,  or  cavalry,  of 
Egypt.^  The  Canaanites  had  "chariots  of  iron"  when  Joshua 
attempted  to  conquer  them.^  During  the  reign  of  the  first 
Hebrew  king  (Saul)  the  Philistines  warred  against  him  with 
thirty  thousand  chariots  and  six  thousand  cavalry,  that  is, 
mounted  horsemen.*  And  the  Syrians  hired  thirty-two  thou- 
sand chariots  and  cavalry  from  Mesopotamia  to  war  against 
David.^  The  Hebrews  did  not  at  first  use  chariots  or  war 
horses  in  their  warfare.  The  Deuteronomic  law  required  of 
the  king,  "He  shall  not  multiply  horses  to  himself." '  So  when 
David  captured  one  thousand  chariots  and  seven  hundred 
horsemen  (or  cavalry)  from  the  king  of  Zobah  of  Mesopotamia, 
he  disabled  the  horses,  reserving  only  a  hundred  for  as  many 
chariots.'  But  Solomon,  who  fell  into  idolatry  by  alliance  with 
Egj-pt,  gathered  fourteen  hundred  chariots  and  twelve  thou- 
sand cavalry  as  a  military  body  guard.^     Later,  Israel  was 


•  Gen.  41  :  43.     Compare  Gen.  45  :  19-21;  46  :  29;  50  :  g.  *Ex.  14  :  7, 
•Josh.  17  :  16;  Judg.  I  :  19.     Compare  Judg.  4  :  3,  13.  *  i  Sam.  13 

•  1  Chron.  19  :  6,  7.  '  Deut.  17  :  16. 

'  2  Sam.  8:4.  '  I  Kings  4  :  26;  10  :  26,  28,  29. 


CATTLE   AND   CAMELS.  l8l 

Stripped  of  these  means  of  defense,  having  only  fifty  horses 
and  ten  chariots  at  the  siege  of  Samaria.^ 

The  prophets  pronounced  woes  upon  those  who  put  their 
trust  in  horses,  "Woe  to  them  that  go  down  to  Egypt  for  help, 
and  rely  on  horses,  and  trust  in  chariots  because  they  are  many, 
and  in  horsemen  because  they  are  very  strong,  but  they  look 
not  unto  the  Holy  One  of  Israel."  ^  Again,  in  foretelling  the 
destruction  that  should  come  to  the  people  of  Israel,  the  prophet 
said  of  the  fury  and  power  of  the  Chaldeans:  "Their  horses  also 
are  swifter  than  leopards,  and  are  more  fierce  than  the  evening 
wolves,"  and  of  their  horsemen  he  said,  "They  fly  as  an  eagle 
that  hasteth  to  devour."  ^  And  in  predicting  the  fall  of  Nineveh, 
the  prophet  gives  this  sublime  but  awful  picture:  "Woe  to  the 
bloody  city!  it  is  all  full  of  lies  and  rapine.  .  .  .  The  noise  of  the 
whip,  and  the  noise  of  the  rattling  of  wheels,  and  prancing 
horses,  and  bounding  chariots,  the  horsemen  mounting  (or 
•charging'),  and  the  flashing  sword,  and  the  glittering  spear, 
and  a  multitude  of  slain,  and  die  great  heap  of  corpses,  and  there 
is  no  end  of  the  bodies."  *  But  when  prosperity  and  blessings 
were  to  come  from  Israel,  it  was  the  camel,  and  not  the  horse 
of  Midian  that  would  bring  these  great  gifts.^  Does  this 
imply  that  the  camel  was  more  common  in  Arabia  than  the 
horse  at  that  period  ?  The  horses  in  Egypt  seem  to  have  come 
from  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  in  early  times.  The  monu- 
ments depict  horses  of  a  noble  breed  famed  in  early  times  in 
Syria.  A  horse  not  unlike  the  modem  Arabian  steed  in  his 
build  is  sculptured  at  PersepoHs,  vdth  a  string  and  bells  upon 
his  neck.  This  may  illustrate  the  prophet's  prediction,  "In 
that  day  shall  there  be  upon  the  bells  of  the  horses.  Holy  unto 
Jehovah."  There  is  no  more  lofty  and  magnificent  description 
of  the  war  horse  than  that  given  in  the  dramatic  book  of  the 
Old  Testament." 

>  2  Kings  13  :  7.  "  Isaiah  31  :  i-     Compare  Ezek.  17  :  15. 

»  Hab.  1:8.  *  Nahum  3  :  1-3. 

» Isaiah  60  :  6.  •  Job  39  :  19-25- 


1 82  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

"Hast  thou  given  the  horse  his  might? 
Hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with  the  c[uivering  mane? 
Hast  thou  made  him  to  leap  as  a  locust  ? 
The  glory  of  his  snorting  is  terrible. 
He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength; 
He  goeth  out  to  meet  the  armed  men.   .   .  . 
He  swalloweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage;  .  . 
And  he  smelleth  the  battle  afar  off, 
The  thunder  of  the  captains,  and  the  shouting."  ^ 


271.  The  Camel — The  "  Ship  of  the  Desert.^'' — From  time  im- 
memorial the  camel  has  been  the  characteristic  companion  of 
the  Oriental.  Wherever  you  see  the  one  you  expect  to  see  the 
other.  In  every  scene  in  all  history  they  are  the  peculiar 
type  of  Oriental  lands,  especially  of  Western  Asia  and  of 
Africa.  The  elephant  may  be  equally  conspicuous  in  India, 
but  his  range  is  more  linoited,  lea\ing  the  camel  the  undis- 
puted and  characteristic  animal  of  the  larger  part  of  the  Orient. 
The  camel  can  scarcely  be  called  a  beautiful  or  a  picturesque 
animal.  Modem  travelers  who  have  had  experience  in  riding 
upon  it  would  generally  approve  of  Mr.  Russell's  (war  cor- 
respondent to  the  London  Times)  description:  "An  abomin- 
ably ugly  necessary  animal."  The  average  hfe  of  the  camel 
is  reputed  to  be  from  forty  to  fifty  years.  In  summer  it  is 
shorn  of  its  hair,  chiefly  under  the  neck  and  the  legs,  and  the 
hair  is  used  for  making  sackcloth  and  garments  for  men. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  camels:  the  one-humped  or  drome- 
dary, and  the  two-humped  or  bactrian.  The  bactrian  camel 
is  seldom  seen  in  W^estem  Asia,  but  is  common  in  Persia, 
China,  Tartary,  and  Central  Asia.  The  dromedary  often 
designates  a  finer  breed  of  the  ordinary  camel.  In  early  times 
the  camel  was  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  wealth  of  the  patri- 
archs. Thus,  Jacob  gave  Esau  thirty  milch  camels  with  their 
colts.^  Job  was  said  to  have  three  thousand,  and  later,  six 
ihousand  camels.  The  Egyptians  lost  their  camels,  among 
other  beasts,  in  one  of  the  ten  plagues.^     The  prophet  Isaiah 

■  Compare  also  Ps.  147  :  10;  Prov.  21  :  31;  Jer.  4  :  13. 
'Gen.  32  :  13.  'Ex.  9  :  3. 


CATTLE   AND   CAMELS.  1 83 

describes  the  universal  triumph  of  Christ's  kingdom  by  de- 
picting wild  sons  of  the  desert  coming  with  their  camels.^ 
Outside  of  its  milk  and  the  use  made  of  its  hair  in  clothing, 
the  principal  usefulness  of  the  camel  to  the  Oriental  is  in 
traveling.     (See  section  on  Traveling.) 

'  Isaiah  60  :  6. 


XXIII. 


FISHING  AND   HUNTING. 


272.  Syrian  Monopoly. — Among  Orientals  fishing  is  rarely 
a  pastime;  it  is  the  means  of  livelihood.  In  some  Oriental 
countries  now  fisheries  are  a  monopoly,  farmed  out  by  the 
government  for  a  fixed  sum  or  tax.  Thus,  the  center  of  the 
fish  trade  in  Galilee  is  at  Safed.  The  right  and  privileges  of 
fishing  at  Et  Tabigah  and  in  that  part  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee 
is  annually  rented  by  a  party  in  Safed,  and  another  party  in 
Damascus  rents  a  similar  right  to  fish  in  the  lake  near  the 
plain  Et  Butaiha.  The  fishermen  reside  at  Tiberias  and 
other  places  along  the  lake,  and  are  paid  a  percentage  on  the 
fish  caught.  These  fish  are  sent  daily  on  mules  to  the  markets 
in  Safed  and  elsewhere  for  sale.^ 

Naturalists  note  with  special  interest  that  the  fish  common 
in  the  Jordan  and  in  the  waters  of  Galilee,  are  very  similar 
to  those  found  in  the  Nile  and  in  the  lakes  and  canals  of  Egypt 
Fish  abound  in  the  Jabbok  and  about  the  pools  of  Heshbon, 
as  in  olden  times.^  Fish  of  the  Lebanon  streams  and  those 
about  Damascus  are  allied  to  those  now  found  in  the  streams 
of  Asia  Minor,  rather  than  to  those  in  the  Nile.  Oriental 
fishermen  now,  as  from  time  immemorial,  take  fish  in  nets, 
either  the  cast-net  or  the  drag,  or  drawnet.  Sometimes  hook 
and  line  are  used,  but  obviously  not  as  generally  as  in  olden 
time. 

273.  Fish  Nets. — Prof.  Post  furnishes  a  description  of  the 
nets  used  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean;  similar  nets  are  also 
used  on  the  sea  of  Galilee.  The  cast-net  is  circular  and 
weighted  with  pellets  of  lead  upon  the  outer  edge.  The  net 
is  about  ten  feet  in  diameter,  having  a  line  attached  to  the 
center.     He  describes  its  use  thus:    "When  the  net  is  cast, 

•  S.  S.  W.,  1908,  p.  94.  '  Song  of  Sol.  7  :  4. 

184 


FISHING   AND   HUNTING.  IO5 

it  spreads  out  to  its  greatest  extent;  the  fishermen  hauls  the 
net  toward  him  by  a  cord  at  the  center,  until  he  can  grasp 
it  with  one  hand,  and  then  pulls  it  out  of  the  water,  gathering 
up  the  folds  with  the  other  hand,  not  allowing  the  meshes 
to  become  entangled  with  the  bits  of  lead,  and  coils  the  net 
around  the  other  hand,  wringing  out  the  water.  Thus,  the 
leads  are  all  left  hanging  from  the  free  border  of  the  net, 
folded  together,  but  not  entangled.  The  fisherman  now  wades 
into  the  water,  often  waist-deep,  and  watches  for  some  sign  of  a 
shoal  of  fish.  When  he  sees  a  ripple  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  he  seizes  the  border  of  the  net  at  any  convenient  point 
with  the  right  hand,  and  by  a  dexterous  twirl  throws  the  net 
free  from  the  left  hand,  causing  it  at  the  same  time  to  rotate 
on  its  center  in  such  a  way  that  the  whole  net  is  spread  flat 
to  its  utmost  extent,  and  falls  in  the  water  with  a  splash,  just 
over  the  shoal  of  fish.  The  leads  cause  the  border  of  the  net 
at  once  to  sink  to  the  bottom  and  imprison  any  fish  that  may 
not  have  escaped  during  the  cast,  and  the  net  disappears  under 
the  surface  of  the  water.  He  has  taken  care  to  retain  his  hold 
on  the  central  cord,  with  which  he  slowly  draws  up  the  center 
of  the  net  in  the  manner  before  described,  and  captures  any 
fish  that  may  have  been  included  within  the  circle  of  the  leads. 
This  mode  of  fishing  is  exceedingly  picturesque." 

274.  Drawnet. — The  drag  or  drawnet  is  a  strip  of  netting, 
often  hundreds  of  feet  in  length,  and  from  six  to  eight  feet  in 
breadth,  like  our  seine.  The  two  ends  of  this  net  are  furnished 
with  ropes,  which  extend  for  a  considerable  distance  beyond 
them.  One  of  the  long  sides  of  the  net  is  buoyed  up  by  cork 
floats,  and  the  other  side  made  to  sink  by  leads.  This  net  is 
sometimes  set  and  drawn  in  the  sea,  in  which  case  two  boats 
are  required;  each  boat  takes  an  end  of  the  net,  which  is  let 
down  into  the  sea,  and  stretched  between  them.  They  then 
row  in  such  a  way  as  to  enclose  with  the  net  a  great  circle  of 
the  sea,  and  when  they  meet  they  commence  to  haul  in  the 
net  into  the  boats,  until  the  circle  has  become  small,  when 
the  bottom  rope  is  hauled  in  faster  than  the  top,  so  that  the 


1 86  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

fish  become  enclosed  as  in  a  bag,  and  are  pulled  over  the  sides 
of  the  boats. 

Often  the  net  is  set  and  drawn  from  the  land.  Then  one 
boat  takes  an  end  of  the  net,  as  far  as  its  length  will  allow, 
out  to  sea,  and  brings  it  around  mth  a  great  sweep  to  the 
point  of  starting,  where  gangs  of  men  haul  it  in  by  the  ropes 
at  the  two  ends,  gradually  pulling  the  lower  rope  more  than 
the  upper.  Again,  two  boats  may  stretch  the  net  between 
them  at  a  distance  from  the  shore,  and  sweep  inward  toward 
the  beach,  carrying  the  fish  before  them.  This  method  is 
possible  where  there  is  a  smooth  sand  beach.  Rocks  or 
rubbish  would  obstruct  and  tear  the  net. 

275.  Fishing  by  Night. — Fishing  is  rarely  done  by  day. 
On  the  Sea  of  Galilee  it  is  still  usually  done  at  night,  as  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord.  Thus,  the  disciples  said  they  had  toiled  all 
night  and  taken  nothing.  How  could  they  expect  to  catch 
anything  in  the  morning  by  daylight  ? 

The  fisherman,  while  fishing,  takes  off  his  coat;  indeed,  he 
does  not  mind  working  entirely  naked,  but  if  a  stranger  or  one 
not  of  his  company  comes  to  the  shore,  he  puts  on  his  coat. 
Thus,  Peter  put  his  fisherman's  coat  about  him  because  he 
was  "naked." 

Dr.  Tristram  tells  of  an  experience  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
near  Bethsaida.  He  inquired  of  a  miller  if  he  had  any  fish. 
The  miller  said  yes,  and  ran  toward  some  rushes,  which  was 
really  the  hut  of  the  fisherman,  whose  net  was  spread  on  the 
shore  to  dry.  Out  of  the  rushes  emerged  a  man  stark  naked, 
who  began  to  prepare  his  net  for  a  cast.  Having  folded  it 
neatly,  he  swam  in  with  it  a  little  way,  cast  it,  and  returned  by 
a  semicircle  across  to  the  shore,  when  he  gently  drew  it  in 
with  a  few  fishes  enclosed.  Fishermen  with  a  cast-net  at  the 
present  day  work  stark  naked,  with  the  e.xception  of  a  thick 
woolen  skull  cap.  On  the  Egyptian  monuments  persons 
catching  fish  and  water  fowl  with  nets  are  depicted  naked. 
The  poet  Virgil  advised  plowmen  to  plow  "naked,"  by  which 
he  meant,  however,  in  an  under  garment  only.     Peter  probably 


FISHING   AND   HUNTING.  1 67 

had  on  a  tunic  or  under  garment,  which  peasants  usually  wear 
at  labor. 

276.  Fish  Laws. — Men  were  trained  and  became  skilled  in 
fishing  long  before  the  patriarchal  period.  On  the  Assyrian 
monuments,  which  are  of  a  very  ancient  date,  various  modes  of 
fishing  are  represented.  Fish  and  fishermen  are  mentioned  over 
sixty  (64)  times  in  the  Scriptures.  First  of  all,  man  was  given 
dominion  over  the  fish  in  the  sea.^  Various  methods  of  fishing 
are  mentioned,  or  are  used  as  illustrations  of  their  message  by 
the  sacred  writers.  The  Levitical  law  permitted  some  kinds  of 
fish  to  be  eaten,  and  other  kinds  were  forbidden  as  food  to  the 
Hebrews.'  Those  ha\'ing  fins  and  scales  were  counted  ' '  clean  " ; 
those  without  fins  and  scales  were  counted  "unclean,"  like  all 
reptiles,  and  were  not  to  be  used  as  food.  Fish  we  know  were 
common  in  Egypt,  for  the  Israelites  longed  for  the  fish  of  that 
country.  "We  remember  the  fish,  which  we  did  eat  in  Egypt.  "^ 
The  fish  of  the  Nile  were  destroyed  by  one  of  the  ten  plagues.* 
P'requently  fish  died  because  the  streams  dried  up.^  In  the 
time  of  the  captivity,  Sidon  and  Tyxt  were  famous  for  their 
fisheries.*"  The  prophet  foretold  the  time  when  the  fisherman 
would  spread  his  nets  on  the  ruins  of  that  city,  a  prediction 
which  is  fulfilled  to  the  letter  to-day.  The  fishermen  of  the 
WTetched  village  near  the  site  of  old  Tyre  now  dry  their  nets, 
as  the  prophet  foretold  they  would,  upon  the  desolate  rocky 
site.'' 

277.  Modes  of  Fishing. — The  methods  of  fishing  in  ancient 
times  were  quite  like  those  which  prevail  to-day.  "He  taketh 
up  all  of  them  with  the  angle,  he  catcheth  them  in  his  net,  and 
gathereth  them  in  his  drag  (net)."^  The  prophet  Isaiah 
alludes  to  fishing  with  a  cast-net  as  well  as  with  the  hook, 
"The  fishers  shall  lament,  and  all  they  that  cast  angle  into  the 
Nile  shall  mourn,  and  they  that  spread  nets  upon  the  waters 
shall  languish."  *  This  exactly  describes  the  modem  circular 
cast-net  and  the  mode  of  fishing  with  it.     This  mode  of  fishing 

'  Gen.  1  :  26.  -  Lev.  11  :  ()-i2.  *  Num.  11  :  5. 

*  E.x.  7:21;  Ps.  105  :  29.  '  Tsaiah  50  :  2.  "  Neh.  13  :  16. 

'  Ezek.  26  :  5-14-     Compare  47  :  10.         *  Hab.  i  :  15.  •  Isaiah  10  :  8. 


1 88  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

wdth  a  cast-net  also  illustrates  what  the  two  disciples  were  doing 
when  the  Lord  called  them  to  follow  him,  saying,  "Come  ye 
after  me,  and  I  will  make  you  fishers  of  men."  ^ 

The  modem  draw,  or  dragnet,  is  referred  to  in  the  parable 
of  our  Lord.^  The  prophets  allude  to  fishing  with  hook  and 
line.  Thus,  Amos  uses  that  mode  of  fishing  to  illustrate  the 
severity  and  mode  of  treating  captives:  "The  days  shall  come 
upon  you,  that  they  shall  take  you  away  with  hooks,  and  your 
residue  with  fish-hooks."  ^  The  remarkable  instance  of  secur- 
ing money  for  paying  the  temple  tax  will  be  recalled  by  every 
reader.  The  Lord  told  Peter,  "  Go  thou  to  the  sea,  and  cast  a 
hook,  and  take  up  the  fish  that  first  cometh  up;  and  when  thou 
hast  opened  his  mouth,  thou  shalt  find  a  shekel :  that  take,  and 
give  unto  them  for  me  and  thee."  *  Spearing  of  fish  is  also 
frequently  mentioned.  Thus,  in  describing  the  power  of  levia- 
than, Job  is  asked, 

"  Can'st  thou  draw  out  leviathan  with  a  fish  hook? 
Can'st  thou  fill  his  skin  with  barbed  irons 
Or  his  head  with  fish  spears? " * 

So  the  Lord  called  his  disciples,  by  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  "to 
become  fishers  of  men."  " 

278.  Hunting. — The  mode  of  hunting  in  Oriental  lands  has 
completely  changed  since  the  invention  of  guns  and  gunpowder. 
Sometimes,  though  rarely,  traces  of  the  old  method  of  taking 
wild  animals  by  traps  and  snares,  or  driving  them  into  hidden 
pits,  still  prevails  as  in  the  interior  of  Africa  and  some  remote 
comers  of  Asia.  In  like  m.anner,  the  method  of  taking  them 
by  spears  or  by  arrows  has  largely  been  displaced  by  more 
modem  weapons. 

The  pit  or  pitfall  was  found  to  be  a  mode  of  catching  and 
killing  the  larger  animals  in  Africa  by  Linngstone.  Long  lines 
of  hedges  were  made  to  approach  each  other  in  the  shape  of  the 
letter  "V."    The  two  lines  were  not  joined  at  the  extremity, 

•  Matt.  4  :  19;  Mark  i  :  16;  John  21:6.  «  Matt.  13  :  47. 
'  Amos  4:2.                    ♦  Matt.  17  :  27-  *  Job  4i  =  i.  7- 

•  Matt.  4  :  19;  Mark  1:17;  Luke  5  :  10. 


FISHING   AND  HUNTING.  1 89 

but  ended  in  a  narrow  lane,  many  yards  long,  and  at  the  end  of 
this  lane  was  a  deep  pit,  carefully  concealed  by  rushes  and 
brush.  The  animals  were  driven  into  this  lane,  and  forced 
into  the  pit.  The  net  was  used  to  catch  some  wild  game,  as 
birds,  from  time  immemorial,  as  we  know  from  the  scenes 
sketched  upon  Assyrian  monuments,  and  also  in  Egyptian 
tombs.  Even  animals  as  large  as  the  fallow  deer  were  caught 
in  nets  or  in  hidden  traps.  This  method  of  taking  game  is 
frequendy  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  Psalmist  says,  "He 
will  pluck  my  feet  out  of  the  net,"  ^  and  again,  "In  the  net 
which  they  hid  is  their  o^\^l  foot  taken,"  -  and  again, 

"  They  hid  for  me  their  net  in  a  pit  ; 
Without  cause  they  have  digged  a  pit  for  my  soul.  .  .  . 
Let  his  net  that  he  hath  hid  catch  himself."  ^ 

The  Psalmist  asked  to  be  delivered  by  Jehovah  from  snares, 

"  In  the  way  wherein  I  walk 
Have  they  hidden  a  snare  for  me."  * 

The  prophet  refers  to  capturing  wild  beasts  in  a  net,  "Thy 
sons  have  fainted,  they  lie  at  the  head  of  all  the  streets,  as  an 
antelope  in  a  net."  ^  The  courage  required  to  kill  a  wild  beast 
taken  in  a  pit  is  also  graphically  described,  "A  valiant  man  of 
Kabzeel,  who  hath  done  mighty  deeds,  .  .  .  went  down  also 
and  slew  a  lion  in  the  midst  of  a  pit  in  time  of  snow."  ^  Hunting 
wild  beasts  and  snaring  birds,  either  for  livelihood  or  as  an  ex- 
ercise, or  for  sport,  came  natural  to  the  human  race  from  the 
very  earliest  time.  Thus,  Nimrod,  a  great  hero,  "Was  a  mighty 
hunter  before  Jehovah,"  so  great  was  his  fame  that  it  became  a 
proverb,  "Like  Nimrod,  a  mighty  hunter  before  Jehovah."' 
The  father  of  the  Ishmaelites  "grew  up,  an  archer."  *  While 
Jacob  was  a  quiet  man,  dwelling  in  tents,  his  brother  "  Esau  was 
a  skilful  hunter,  a  man  of  the  field."  **  After  the  exodus  the 
Israelites  were  not  compelled  to  hunt  for  a  livelihood,  but  they 

>  Ps.  25  :  IS.  s  Ps.  9  :  15.  ^Ps.  35  =  7,  8. 

*  Ps.  142  :  3.  *  Isa.  51  :  20.  *2  Sam.  23  :  20. 

'  Gen.  10  :  9.  '  Gen.  21  ■•  20.  '  Gen.  25  :  27. 


190  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

continued  to  pursue  it  for  the  sake  of  securing  the  much-desired 
flesh  of  the  hart,  and  the  roe-buck,  and  other  species  of  deer.^ 
279.  Snares. — In  early  times  it  is  quite  evident  that  birds 
and  flying  fowl  were  taken  chiefly  with  snares,  and  this  form  of 
hunting  is  frequently  used  to  illustrate  how  the  wicked  were 
taken  and  how  the  righteous  escaped.  Thus,  "Our  soul  is 
escaped  as  a  bird  out  of  the  snare  of  the  fowlers:  the  snare  is 
broken,  and  we  are  escaped."  -  The  way  in  which  the  wicked 
were  taken  is  also  graphically  described: 

"  As  a  bird  haste th  to  the  snare, 
And  knoweth  not  that  it  is  for  his  life."  3 

The  false  prophets  were  thus  pictured,  "As  for  the  prophet,  a 
fowler's  snare  is  in  all  his  ways."*  The  ingenious  and  iniq- 
uitous ways  of  wicked  men  to  lead  others  into  sin  are  thus  de- 
scribed by  the  prophet,  "Among  my  people  are  found  wicked 
men;  they  watch,  as  fowlers  lie  in  wait;  they  set  a  trap,  they 
catch  men.  As  a  cage  is  full  of  birds,  so  are  their  houses  full 
of  deceit."  ^ 

Many  of  these  methods  of  hunting  were  probably  kno-wn  to 
Abraham  before  he  left  the  land  of  the  Chaldees,  and  the 
Israelites  no  doubt  were  further  made  acquainted  ^vith  them  so 
that  they  became  faihiliar  with  these  ancient  modes  of  captur- 
ing animals  in  Egypt,  and  on  their  journey  through  Sinai  toward 
the  land  of  promise. 

'  Compare  Deut.  12  :  15  with  Lev.  11  :  3-7,  13-19,  24-27.  *  Ps.  124  :  7. 

»  Prov.  7  :  23-  *  Hosea  9:8.  •  Jer.  5  :  26,  27. 


Camel — Group  and  Loads. 

(yesler  &  Co  ) 


r.  192 


Syrian  Dogs. 

^Copyri^ht  by  Underwood  &  Underwood^  New  York.) 


P.    167 


XXIV. 


TRAVELING  IN  ORIENTAL   LANDS. 


It  is  a  common  saying  that  hardly  anything  is  more  distinct- 
ive of  Oriental  life  than  the  mode  of  traveling.  It  was  also 
said  a  century  ago  that  litde  progress  had  been  made  in  this 
respect  for  three  thousand  years.  Then  pilgrims  from  Jaffa  to 
Jerusalem,  from  Haifa  to  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  from  Beirut  to 
Damascus,  and  thence  to  Mecca,  went  on  foot,  or  on  mules,  or 
camel  back ;  now  they  can  go  by  railways.  This  is  significant  of 
the  rapid  and  radical  changes  in  Oriental  lands.  Let  us  get  a 
flashlight  on  primitive  Oriental  traveling  before  it  wholly  passes, 
never  to  return. 

280.  Caravan. — I  have  spoken  of  the  camel,  "the  ship  of  the 
desert,"  as  a  typical  Oriental  scene,  and  mode  of  traveling. 
A  caravan  of  pilgrims  going  to  Mecca  a  century  ago  well  il- 
lustrated Israel's  march  through  the  desert  to  the  land  of 
promise.  An  eye-witness  gives  us  the  picture:  "The  first  day 
we  set  out  without  any  order  in  hurly-burly,  camels,  mules,  men, 
women,  and  children,  struggling  to  get  on,  often  quarreling, 
shouting,  and  gesticulating,  a  babel  of  confusion.  But  when 
everyone  had  his  place  among  the  great  companies  of  people  in 
the  caravan,  each  company  having  a  leader  and  a  standard,  they 
kept  the  same  place  orderly  and  peacefully.  For  the  caravan 
was  divided  into  several  companies,  each  having  its  name,  con- 
sisting it  may  be,  of  several  thousand  camels,  moving  one  com- 
pany after  another  like  bodies  of  troops.  They  all  camp  dur- 
ing much  of  the  day  because  of  the  heat,  and  travel  in  the  cool 
of  the  evening  and  by  night.  Each  morning  they  pitch  their  tents 
and  rest  for  hours.  The  camels  are  unloaded  and  the  owners 
take  them  to  water  and  feed  them.  The  pilgrims  lay  down  to 
sleep.  About  four  in  the  afternoon  the  trumpet  sounds  a  signal 
for  the  moving  of  the  hosts.     Quickly  the  tents  are  taken  down, 

191 


192  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

things  are  packed,  camels  are  loaded,  and  the  journey  begun." 
This  picture  is  almost  identical  vith  that  presented  by  the 
sacred  writer  concerning  the  movement  of  the  Israelites  through 
the  wilderness.* 

281.  On  Camel  -Bacyfe.— Traversing  large  tracts  of  wilderness, 
sometimes  sandy,  arid,  and  without  water,  the  camel  becomes 
an  indispensable  mode  of  travel.  Every  experienced  traveler 
unites  in  testifying  to  the  peculiar  disposition  of  the  camel. 
It  is  not  an  amiable  animal,  forms  no  attachment  to  its  owoier, 
nor  does  its  owner,  only  now  and  again,  an  Arab,  form  one  for 
his  beast.  A  traveler  can  make  a  friend  of  his  horse,  or  even 
of  a  mule,  but  never  of  a  camel.  Tristram  declares,  "I  have 
made  a  journey  in  Africa  for  three  months  with  the  same  camels, 
but  never  succeeded  in  eliciting  the  slightest  token  of  recogni- 
tion from  one  of  them,  or  of  a  friendly  disposition  for  kindness 
shown."  Robinson,  the  American  explorer,  gives  a  graphic 
description  of  the  habits  and  uses  of  the  camel:  "Admirably 
adapted  to  the  desert  regions,  which  are  their  (camels)  home, 
they  yet  constitute  one  of  the  evils  which  traveling  in  the  desert 
brings  with  it.  Their  long,  slow,  rolling,  or  rocking  gait, 
although,  not  at  first  very  unpleasant,  becomes  exceedingly 
fatiguing;  so  that  I  have  often  been  more  exhausted  in  riding 
five  and  twenty  miles  upon  a  camel  than  in  traveling  fifty 
on  horseback."  Camels  were  made  "  to  be  the  carriers  of  the 
desert."  "The  coarse  and  prickly  shrubs  of  the  wastes  are 
to  them  the  most  delicious  food;  and  even  of  these  they  eat 
but  little.  So  few  are  the  wants  of  their  nature  that  their 
power  of  going  without  food,  as  well  as  without  water,  is 
wonderful.  They  never  appear  to  tire,  they  commonly  march 
as  freshly  in  the  evening  as  in  the  morning."  "Their  well- 
known  habit  of  lying  down  upon  the  breast  to  receive  their 
burdens  ...  is  their  natural  position  of  repose."  "Hardly 
less  wonderful  is  the  adaptation  of  their  broad  cushioned  foot 
to  the  arid  gravelly  soil,  which  it  is  their  lot  chiefly  to  traverse." 
"They  are  commonly  represented  as  patient;    but  if  so,  it  is 

•  See  Num.  2  :  1-34;  9  :  15-23;  10  :  1-36. 


TRAVELING   IN   ORIENTAL   LANDS.  1 93 

the  patience  of  stupidity.  They  are  rather  exceedingly  im- 
patient; and  utter  loud  cries  of  indignation  when  receiving 
their  loads,  and  not  seldom  on  being  made  to  kneel  down. 
They  are  also  obstinate  and  frequently  vicious;  and  an 
attempt  to  urge  them  forward  is  often  very  much  l^ke  trying 
to  drive  sheep  the  way  they  do  not  choose  to  go.  The  cry  of 
the  camel  resembles  in  a  degree  the  hollow  bleating  of  the 
sheep;  sometimes  it  is  like  the  lovdng  of  neat  catde,  or  the 
hoarse  squeal  of  the  swine." 

282.  Camel's  Habits. — The  camel  eats  and  drinks  little, 
and  secretes  litde;  he  is  a  cold-blooded,  heavy,  sullen  animal, 
having  litde  feeling  and  littie  susceptibility  for  pain.  Thisdes 
and  briers  and  thorns  he  crops  and  chews  with  more  avidity 
than  the  softest  green  fodder;  nor  does  he  seem  to  feel  pain 
from  blows  or  pricks,  unless  they  are  very  violent.  There  is 
nothing  graceful  or  sprighdy  in  any  camel,  old  or  young;  all 
are  misshapen,  ungainly,  and  awkward.  The  young  have 
nothing  frisky  or  playful,  but  in  all  their  movements  are  as 
staid  and  sober  as  their  dams. 

"As  the  carriers  of  the  East,  'the  ships  of  the  desert,'  another 
important  quality  of  the  camel  is  sure-footedness.  I  was 
surprised  to  find  them  traveling  with  so  much  ease  and  safety 
up  and  down  the  most  rugged  mountain  passes.  They  do  not 
choose  their  way  with  sagacity,  as  the  mule,  or  even  as  the 
horse,  but  they  tread  much  more  surely  and  safely,  and  never 
either  slip  or  stumble.  .  .  .  The  sounds  by  which  the  Arabs 
govern  their  camels  are  very  few  and  guttural.  The  signal 
for  kneeling  is  not  unlike  a  gende  snore;  and  is  made  by 
throwing  the  breath  strongly  against  the  palate,  but  not  through 
the  nose.  That  for  stopping  is  a  sort  of  guttural  clucking, 
which  I  could  never  master."  ^ 

Western  travelers  see  none  of  the  glory  or  poetry  which 
Orientals  put  into  their  ideal  of  the  camel.  Palgrave,  an 
experienced  traveler,  says  of  the  camel,  "He  takes  no  heed 
of  his  driver,  pays  no  attention  whether  he  be  on  his  back  or 

'  Robinson,  Researches,  vol.  ii,  pp.  208-210. 
13, 


194  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

not,  walks  straight  on,  when  once  set  going,  merely  because 
he  is  too  stupid  to  turn  aside,  and  then  should  some  tempting 
thorn  or  green  branch  allure  him  out  of  the  path,  continues  to 
walk  on  in  the  new  direction,  simply  because  he  is  too  dull  to 
turn  back  into  the  right  road." 

In  kneeling,  the  camel  first  bends  his  forelegs,  and  falls 
upon  his  knees,  and  then  gradually  settles  dowTi,  so  that  his 
breast  lies  square  upon  the  ground.  The  saddle  for  loading 
or  riding  the  camel  is  made  by  the  Arabs.  The  frame  is 
usually  of  Cyprus  wood,  of  two  parts,  to  span  the  back  of  the 
camel,  and  of  uprights,  between  which  sits  the  rider.  The 
comfort  of  the  saddle  depends  on  the  width  of  the  span  of 
these  wooden  arches.  The  Vi^ooden  frame  is  padded  with 
raw-hide  skins  or  some  soft  material  to  protect  the  constant 
rubbing  of  the  frame.  It  is  girded  on  wath  a  rope  of  camel's 
hair,  omam.ented  with  tassels,  or  by  thin  leather  straps.  Dr. 
Van  Lennep  says,  "In  riding  the  cam.el  the  same  saddle  is  used 
as  for  loading,  a  cushion  being  added  for  the  greater  comfort 
of  the  rider,  who,  when  proceeding  at  a  slow  pace,  sits  or  lies 
down  in  every  imaginable  posture." 

283.  The  Swift  Camel. — The  dromedary  is  a  special  breed 
of  camel,  prized  for  swiftness.  A  superior  kind,  called 
"Hajeen,"  is  a  thoroughbred,  not  used  for  burdens,  but  re- 
served for  riding.  The  Orientals  regard  them  as  very  swift. 
Riders  may  push  them  into  a  gallop  at  a  speed  of  some  say 
fifteen  to  twenty  miles  an  hour,  or  about  two  hundred  miles 
a  day.  Prof.  Post  sent  me  a  description  of  his  experience 
through  the  desert  of  Sinai.  He  says,  "The  dromedary  of 
Sinai  is  small,  very  square  in  build,  with  delicately  shaped 
legs  and  head.  He  is  capable  of  much  greater  endurance 
than  the  larger,  clumsier  camel  of  Syria,  and  eats  and  drinks 
less."  His  power  to  go  without  water  and  his  swiftness  have 
been  much  exaggerated,  in  Prof.  Post's  view.  He  adds, 
"When  unable  to  find  water,  he  sometimes  endures  thirst 
for  ten  days.  We  found  that  our  beast  drank  eagerly  at  every 
spring,  and  even  at  the  bitter  salty  brooks." 


TRAVELING   IN   ORIENTAL   LANDS.  195 

284.  Camel  Mounting.— "'Mounting  a  camel  is  less  difficult 
than  many  travelers  represent.  If  there  be  a  ledge  of  rock, 
or  a  bank,  he  may  be  bestrode  standing  like  a  horse.  If  not,  it 
only  requires  a  hand  to  be  laid  on  the  pommel  behind  the 
saddle,  while  he  raises  himself  on  his  hind  legs.  The  action 
of  rising  is  divided  into  three  stages:  a  backward  undulation, 
by  which  the  hindquarters  receive  the  whole  weight  of  the  trunk, 
while  he  disengages  his  left  foreleg,  and  advances  it  bent  at 
the  foreknee,  then  a  strong  forward  lunge  as  he  raises  his  hind- 
quarters to  their  full  height.  It  is  this  lunge  which  surprises 
the  inexperienced  rider  by  the  punch  in  the  back  and  the 
forward  fling.  The  third  stage  consists  in  straightening  the 
left  foreleg  freely,  thus  raising  the  forequarters.  He  assists 
himself  in  this  motion  by  steadying  himself  on  the  right  wrist 
until  he  is  nearly  erect,  when  he  flings  the  right  forefoot  also 
into  position  in  the  act  of  straightening  the  other  foreleg.  The 
act  of  kneeling  reverses  these  motions." 

"The  dromedary  walks  slowly,  not  more  when  loaded  than 
two  and  a  half  miles  an  hour.  When  light,  he  may  be  urged 
to  a  gait  of  three  miles  an  hour.  His  trot  is  very  disagreeable, 
and  he  cannot  long  endure  any  pace  but  a  walk."  But  dis- 
tance is  not  computed  by  miles,  but  by  hours,  in  Oriental  lands. 
Reduced  to  Western  phrase,  an  hour  is  equivalent  to  about 
two  and  a  half  or  three  miles. 

285.  Going  in  Crowds. — A  great  drawback  to  traveling 
in  the  East  is  the  necessity  for  journeying  in  company,  or  with 
a  caravan.  Inns  or  hotels  with  rooms  and  food  are  rare,  or 
not  found,  off  the  European  routes.  Thus,  Prof.  Post  says: 
"It  took  nine  camels  to  transport  our  party  of  two  and  the 
necessary  baggage  and  provisions  for  the  thirteen  days'  journey 
from  Cairo  to  Sinai.  .  .  .  Poultry  is  carried  in  cages  made  of 
the  ribs  of  palm  leaves,  and  balanced  on  the  tops  of  the  loads. 
Oranges  are  carried  in  similar  crates."  He  had  a  tent  for 
beds  and  baggage,  another  for  meals  and  reading  and  writing, 
and  a  third  tent  for  the  dragoman  cook.  Even  on  more  fre- 
quented routes  than  those  through  the  wilderness  of  Sinai, 


196  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

roads  and  paths  are  not  safe  to  the  solitary  traveler,  for 
stragglers  in  advance  of  or  behind  a  caravan  are  often  at- 
tacked and  robbed  or  murdered.  Travelers  going  on  a  journey 
must  often  wait,  at  great  inconvenience,  to  join  a  caravan  or  a 
company. 

286.  Roads. — Roads  in  the  Orient — there  are  none.  Even 
the  so-called  "Sultan's  road"  Tristram  calls  "a  mere  track." 
Road  makers  there  are  none,  except  the  feet  of  camels  and 
mules  which  have  worn  beaten  hard  paths  in  the  sand  and 
steps  in  rocks.  Thus  Prof.  Post,  out  of  a  Hfetime  of  experi- 
ence says,  paths  through  the  open  country  lose  all  trace  of 
regularity.  "If  a  rock  fall  across  the  highway,  it  is  no  one's 
business  to  remove  it.  The  road  or  path  accordingly  swerves 
aside  at  the  obstacle  like  a  stream  eddying  around  a  boulder 
in  its  course.  If  an  adjacent  field  presents  an  easier  foot-way, 
a  path  is  soon  made  through  it.  Fences — there  are  none; 
a  stone  or  a  clump  of  bushes  in  the  way  no  one  ever  clears. 
If  a  bridge  falls,  there  is  no  one  to  repair  it,  and  a  wide  detour 
is  soon  established  to  the  nearest  ford,  and  back  on  the  other 
side  to  the  main  track  again.  The  Oriental  roads  are  never 
well  defined,  never  straight.  There  are  many  side  paths, 
and  short  cuts,  and  detours  around  the  obstacles.  It  is  often 
quite  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  branching  path  is  a 
diverging  road  or  a  mere  side  track,  and  only  when  followed 
for  a  distance  can  one  be  certain  whether  he  is  still  on  his 
course  or  has  been  turned  into  another  road.  To  straighten 
the  path,  make  it  plain,  remove  the  stones,  and  enable  the 
cavalcade  of  a  great  man  to  pass  is  the  function  of  his  courier." 
Speedily,  the  torrents  wash  out  the  road  again,  and  it  becomes 
practically  impassable.  The  great  routes  across  the  desert 
and  between  provinces  are  little  more  than  paths  made  by 
caravans,  sometimes  marked  by  "aluiiond,"  heaps  of  stones 
or  bricks.  "These  are  useful  to  the  traveler,"  say  writers  of 
the  last  century,  "for  it  is  as  easy  for  one  to  find  his  way  amidst 
drifted  snow  as  to  find  it  on  this  sandy  desert."  The  prophets 
seize  upon  this  to  teach  a  lesson:    "Set  thee  up  waymarks, 


{Copyright  by  Under 


A..'.     '.',1111     Dii.NKL'i. 
^d  &  Underwood^  New  York.") 


r.  200 


wf^ 


l'Ai.AM,>uiN  Leaving  Oriental  Inn. 

{.Copyright  by  Underiuood &r  Underiuood,  New  York.) 


TRAVELING   IN   ORIENTAL   LANDS.  1 97 

make  thee  guide-posts."*  "O  my  people,  they  that  lead  thee 
cause  thee  to  err,  and  destroy  the  way  of  thy  paths. "^ 

This  also  illustrates  the  prophecy  concerning  the  Messiah, 
and  the  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist  in  the  wilderness.^  Light 
is  also  thrown  upon  other  allusions  to  "paths,"  as  in  Proverbs 
and  the  Psalms,  where  the  plural  form  seems  strange,  until 
we  learn  that  it  exactly  describes  the  many  paths — often  a 
dozen  or  more — that  mingle  and  mix  together,  to  make  the 
one  broad  way  or  route.  These  are  due  to  the  peculiar  mode 
of  the  camels,  following  one  another,  m^aking  new  paths  beside 
the  old  ones.  Thus,  "Neither  do  they  attain  unto  the  paths 
of  life,"  where  we  would  look  for  the  singular,  "path."  *  "My 
steps  have  held  fast  to  thy  paths."  ^ 

Roads  in  Syria  and  paths  and  bridges  are  poorer  to-day 
than  they  were  in  the  time  of  our  Lord.  The  Romans  were 
road-builders.  Their  great  lines  of  travel  were  marked  out  by 
roads,  binding  their  provinces  together,  which  mxade  traveling 
easier  nineteen  hundred  years  ago  than  it  is  to-day  in  Western 
Asia.  But  the  Romans  were  not  Orientals,  the  typical  Oriental 
is  not  a  road-builder. 

zSj.jOn  Foot. — Traveling  on  foot  and  in  companies  is  still 
common  as  it  was  in  olden  times  in  Oriental  lands.  The 
Oriental  requires  a  simple  outfit  for  his  journey:  a  scrip,  purse, 
and  shoes,  with  a  weapon  for  defense.  The  scrip  is  a  bag, 
usually  of  leather  or  of  matting,  to  carry  the  provisions,  olives, 
dried  figs,  thin  barley  cakes,  or,  more  commonly,  barley  meal  or 
parched  wheat.  The  purse  is  a  small  leather  bag,  concealed 
under  the  shirt,  and  hung  by  a  string  around  the  neck,  or  his 
money  and  jewels  may  be  carried  in  his  girdle.  The  shoes 
usually  are  of  hide,  dressed  with  the  hair  on  the  upper  side,  with 
heels  and  softer  material  for  the  side,  and  are  strapped  on  the 
feet  v^dth  thongs.  As  there  are  no  hotels  with  furnished  rooms 
and  a  table  in  the  East,  the  traveler  carries  his  bed  and  cover- 

'  Jer.  31  :  21.  2  Jsa.  3  :  12. 

'  Isa.  40  :  3;  Matt.  3  :  3;  Mark  i  :  2,  3;  Mai.  3  :  i;  Luke  3  :  4. 

•  Prov.  2  :  19.      See  also  2  :  20;  3  :  6;  4  :  11;   Jer.  6  :  16;   13  :  15;  Lam.  3  :  9. 

*Ps.  17  :  S;  23  :  3;  Job  38  :  20. 


198  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

ings  and  sometimes  a  tent,  though  he  usually  sleeps  under  the 
stars. 

An  Arab  now  travels,  even  in  the  desert,  with  very  simple 
provision.  He  may  have  two  skin -bags  over  his  shoulder,  one 
full  of  water  and  the  other  of  barley  meal  or  parched  wheat. 
Stopping  for  the  night,  he  picks  up  a  few  twigs  and  roots  of  the 
juniper,  kindles  a  fire  on  a  flat  stone  or  two,  with  his  flint  and 
steel,  "takes  a  handful  of  meal  from  his  bag,  mixes  it  with  a 
little  water,  rolls  it  out  into  a  cake  of  dough,  and  when  the  stone 
is  hot  brushes  it  off,  puts  the  dough  cake  on  the  hot  stone, 
covers  it  with  coals  and  ashes,  and  his  cake  is  soon  baked." 
So  Elijah  found  a  cake  baked  on  "coals"  of  hot  stones,  and  a 
bottle  of  water,  when  the  angel  awaked  him.^ 

288.  Travelers'  Supplies. — Orientals  now,  as  in  our  Lord's 
day,  do  not  go  on  a  journey  vidthout  having  either  barley  bread, 
or  meal,  or  parched  wheat,  enough  for  one  or  two  days'  food. 
This  illustrates  the  feeding  of  the  four  thousand. 

On  the  third  day  Jesus  said,  "I  have  compassion  on  the  mul- 
titude, because  they  continue  with  me  now  three  days  and  have 
nothing  to  eat:  and  I  would  not  send  them  away  fasting,  lest 
haply  they  faint  on  the  way."^  The  peasants  who  flocked  to 
hear  him  in  the  desert  would  have,  according  to  custom,  a  day's 
food  or  more  with  them.  On  the  third  day  their  supply  would 
be  used  up,  yet  the  disciples  had  "seven  loaves"  and  a  "few 
small  fishes"  left  even  on  the  third  day.^ 

289.  Children  Traveling. — When  traveling  in  companies  now, 
as  in  Oriental  times,  the  boys  of  the  transition  age  would  be 
sometimes  with  their  fathers,  and  at  other  times  with  their 
mothers  and  the  v/omen.  Orientals  now  traveling  in  companies 
usually  separate,  the  men  for  the  most  part  spending  the  night 
by  themselves,  and  the  women  and  children  by  themselves. 
A  lad  who  was  uncertain  whether  he  could  travel  as  rapidly  as 
the  men,  would  naturally  go  in  the  advanced  portion  of  the 
caravan,  or  company,  with  the  women,  who  start  first  and  pro- 
ceed at  a  slower  pace.     The  men,  starting  later,  travel  more 

'  I  Kings  19  :  6.  '  Matt.  15  :  32;  Mark  8:2.  '  Matt.  15  :  34- 


TRAVELING   IN   ORIENTAL   LANDS.  1 99 

rapidly.  Thus,  it  was  easy  for  the  parents  of  Jesus  to  miss  him. 
The  mother  would  naturally  think  that  he  had  remained  to  come 
on  with  his  father ;  the  father,  not  seeing  him,  would  suppose  that 
he  had  gone  ahead  with  his  mother  and  the  women.  It  was 
not  until  the  whole  company  came  together  for  the  night  that  he 
would  be  missed.^ 

290.  Girdle  and  Staff. — Orientals  now  carry  coined  money, 
usually  gold,  because  it  is  more  easily  carried.  "They  keep 
some  change  in  pocket  or  purse,  carrying  the  greater  portion 
in  the  girdle.  These  girdles  are  made  of  leather,  or  of  woven 
silk,  wool,  or  cotton.  They  are  quite  wide,  and  a  portion  is 
made  double,  so  as  to  form  a  long  pouch,  in  which  the  money  is 
placed,  and  the  girdle  is  fastened  about  the  person  with  stout 
straps  and  buckles.  Sometimes  it  is  long  enough  to  go  twice 
around  the  waist.  Everyone  East  wears  a  belt  or  girdle  of  some 
description."  Every  traveler  also  on  foot  in  the  Orient  has  a 
staff.  There  is  an  Arab  proverb,  "The  staff  of  the  old  man  is 
his  third  foot." 

291.  Ships. — The  typical  Oriental  sailing  vessel,  as  a  mode  of 
travel  or  of  transporting  goods,  has  largely  given  place  to  steam- 
ships. Rarely  may  an  old  style  of  Eastern  sailing  vessel  be  seen 
now.  Some  may  be  found  in  localities  along  coasts  not  reached 
by  steamers.  Mr.  Haddad  observes,  "Sailors  in  these  ships  do 
not  study  navigation  in  the  schools;  they  have  no  maps,  no  in- 
struments to  measure  distances,  and  few  possess  a  compass. 
They  know  the  route  by  experience,  they  find  the  course  during 
the  day  by  the  sun,  and  at  night  by  the  moon  and  stars.  When 
these  are  obscured  by  clouds,  they  depend  upon  their  intelli- 
gence and  experience.  They  make  the  voyage  successfully  for 
long  periods.  Sometimes  they  still  have  misfortune  in  storms, 
as  Paul  did  in  his  day."  ^  "  Some  ships,  which  do  not  hold  more 
than  four  thousand  bushels  of  grain,  traverse  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  from  one  end  to  the  other,  summer  and  winter."  ^  In 
ancient  times  the  Phoenicians,  living  on  the  sea,  were  famous  for 

•  Luke  2  :  41-51.  '  Acts  27.     See  also  2  Cor.  11  :  25. 

'  Compare  Jonah  i  :  3-5  with  Num.  24  :  24;  i  Kings  22  :  48;  2  Chron.  9  :  21;  20  :  37; 
and  Isa.  60  :  g. 


200  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

shipbuilding.^  Solomon  and  Hiram  had  a  navy  of  ships  "on 
the  Red  Sea."  ^ 

The  ships  so  often  mentioned  in  the  Gospels  upon  the  Lake 
of  Galilee  were  in  reality  small  boats;  either  row-boats  or  boats 
having  a  small  lateen  sail.  Over  fifty  years  ago  Dr.  Thomson 
said  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee  and  the  Arabs  on  its  shore,  "They 
have  no  more  use  for  boats  than  for  well-made  roads;  both  dis- 
appeared together  when  the  Arabians  conquered  the  country." 
He  predicts,  "Both  will  reappear  together  as  soon  as  a  more 
civilized  race  rises  to  power."  The  tax-officer  of  the  district 
told  me  that  a  few  years  ago  he  listed  nine  boats  for  taxation  on 
the  lake.  Thus,  the  fishermen  on  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  who  were 
said  to  be  fishing  "in  a  ship  with  Zebedee  their  father,"  were  in 
fact  in  a  small  boat,  as  were  all  the  "ships"  on  that  lake  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord.  They  were  either  fishing  boats  or  small  sail- 
boats.^ 

But  the  vessels  named  in  the  story  of  the  Acts  were  large 
sailing  vessels,  although  some  of  them  had  oars,  either  for  steer- 
ing or  for  rowing.* 

292.  By  Mules. — In  Oriental  lands  to-day,  as  in  olden  times, 
persons  of  rank  travel  upon  mules.  Thus  Deborah's  song 
says, 

"  Tell  of  it,  ye  that  ride  on  white  asses, 
Ye  that  sit  on  rich  carpets, 
And  ye  that  walk  by  the  way."* 

They  still  ride  also  in  a  sedan-chair,  carried  by  men  or  mounted 
on  two  wheels,  and  drawn  by  men,  like  the  jin-riksha  of  Japan. 
The  travelers  of  the  last  century  also  describe  a  more  luxurious 
mode  of  traveling  by  a  tachterwan,  a  species  of  tent  bed  placed  on 
a  frame  and  supported  in  front  by  one  animal — either  horse  or 
camel — and  in  the  rear  by  another  camel  instead  of  by  men. 
They  also  travel  by  a  species  of  tent  bed  placed  crossway  on  the 
back  of  a  mule,  or  arranged  Hke  two  childrens'  cradles  fitted  in 

'  Ezek.  27  :  3-p.  '  i  Kings  q  :  26-28;  10  :  11. 

•See  Matt.  4  :  21;  8  :  24;  14  :  24;  M.vk  i  :  19;  4  ;  38;  8  ;  14;  Luke  s  :  7;  Jolm  6  :  21; 
31:6. 

Acts  20  :  38;  21  :  2;  27  :  2,  30,  40;  Ezek.  27  :  26,  29.     '  Judg.  s  :  10. 


i^kJ- 


Panniers  ov   I^mxkev,  Syria. 

(Cofyright  by  Undtrwood  &  t'litieywood.  New  York.) 


v.   200 


TRAVELING  IN  ORIENTAL  LANDS.         20I 

the  same  way  panniers  are  on  the  back  of  the  camel.  Some 
of  these  were  enclosed  with  curtains  and  are  described  as  very 
comfortable.  Possibly  young  Rachel  was  riding  in  a  similar 
manner  when  she  "had  taken  the  teraphim,  and  put  them  in  the 
camel's  saddle  [or  'lister  ']  and  sat  upon  them."  ^ 

293.  Footman  Runner. — Royal  persons  or  persons  of  high 
rank  when  riding  are  still  attended  by  a  servant  on  foot.^ 
Thus,  Elijah  ran  before  the  chariot  of  Ahab  as  men  now  do. 
Almost  every  traveler  in  the  Orient  speaks  of  seeing  instances  of 
this  kind  in  India  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  as  well  as  in  Northern 
Africa.  Harmer  saw  runners  on  foot  move  with  great  speed  in 
Barbary,  which  gave  a  new  meaning  to  him  to  Job  9  :  25.  All 
writers  from  Herodotus  to  the  present  day  speak  of  the  endur- 
ance and  velocity  with  which  these  runners  will  accompany  a 
man  riding  on  horseback,  or  in  a  chariot,  and  of  the  swiftness 
of  messengers  sent  to  deliver  messages  on  important  business. 
They  will  easily  keep  up  with  a  rider  on  a  camel,  a  mule,  or  in 
a  chariot  all  day,  vidthout  showing  fatigue. 

•  Gen.  31  :  34.  '  See  a  Kings  4  :  24;  Eccles.  10  : 1. 


XXV. 


WARFARE. 


Some  think  Oriental  nations  are  constantly  in  a  ferment, 
if  not  in  warfare.  In  this  generation  they  have  been  in  a 
high  state  of  turbulence.  Archers,  the  use  of  bows  and  arrows, 
of  slings,  catapults,  and  battering  rams,  of  coats  of  mail,  of 
greaves,  shields,  helmets,  and  war  chariots  have  passed. 
With  them  also  has  disappeared  the  need  of  walled  cities  for 
defense.  The  ancient  weapons  of  the  Orient,  the  dagger, 
scimitar,  sabre  or  sword,  club  and  spear,  are,  however,  still 
common.  The  Circassians  use  bows  and  arrows  on  secret 
military  expeditions  or  when  their  powder  fails.^  The 
method  of  warfare  among  primitive  tribes  throws  some, 
though  scant,  light  upon  the  methods  which  were  common  in 
the  days  of  the  sacred  writers. 

294.  Warrior. — A  warrior  or  sheikh  of  to-day  would,  like 
Abraham,  be  armed  with  a  spear,  and  a  sword,  and  dagger, 
but  he  would  also  have  a  pistol,  or  a  musket,  and  would  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  latter  now,  though  still  having  the  other 
weapons  of  defense  common  to  ancient  times.  A  wandering 
Arab  upon  his  fleet  steed,  brandishing  his  spear,  is  still  a 
picturesque  character  when  dashing  across  the  arid  desert. 
To  this  day  he  delights  to  carry  a  dagger,  brandish  his  sabre, 
and  twirl  his  spear.  The  spears  used  by  the  Arabs  have 
handles  about  twelve  feet  long  and  nearly  two  inches  in 
diameter.  The  head  of  the  spear  is  of  pointed  steel  or  metal, 
sharpened  on  both  sides  like  a  dagger.  Its  head  is  about 
a  foot  long.  Sometimes  on  the  other  end  of  the  spear  is  a 
sharp  spike,  three  or  four  inches  long,  which  can  be  thrust 
into  the  ground,  the  spear  standing  upright.  It  can  then 
easily  be  picked  up  by  a  rider  on  horseback.     The  Arab  rider 

•  Dr.  Van  Lennep,  p.  680. 
202 


WARFARE.  203 

is  skilled  in  grasping  it  when  riding  at  a  rapid  pace,  and  is  also 
skilled  in  hurling  it  so  as  to  transfix  an  approaching  enemy. 

This  long  spear  or  lance,  stuck  in  the  ground,  marks  the 
place  where  the  leader  of  the  band  or  the  sheikh  is  to  be 
found.  If  in  the  open  air  it  stands  by  his  side,  or  it  may  be  at 
his  tent  door.  Thus  the  spear  of  Saul  marked  the  place 
where  he  was  sleeping.^  A  shorter  kind  of  spear  is  used  for 
footmen,  but  of  the  same  general  character.  This  short  spear, 
with  the  javelin,  is  an  ancient  and  common  weapon.^ 

295.  Body  Guard. — In  the  last  century  Oriental  monarchs 
maintained  a  military  body  guard.  Sometimes  the  guards 
are  slaves  and  sometimes  they  are  nobles  or  princes  of  the 
country.  Thus,  the  Sultan  formerly  had  lads  taken  or  stolen 
from  their  parents,  and  brought  up  as  Moslems  in  military 
service.  They  might  be  the  children  of  Christians  killed  in 
war.     This  custom  has  come  down  from  early  times.^ 

296.  Oriental  Sword. — The  Bedouin  and  other  Arabs  of 
to-day  always  go  armed.  In  the  Orient  of  olden  time,  as 
now,  the  sword  is  the  symbol  of  power.*  The  Oriental  sword 
is  of  two  kinds;  the  Sarem,  or  curved  sabre,  about  two  feet  long, 
with  hilt  of  wood  or  horn,  the  sharp  edge  on  the  concave 
side,  and  another  with  the  sharp  edge  on  the  convex  side. 
The  scimitar,  or  "Damascus  blade,"  a  thin,  highly  tempered 
sword,  is  also  curved,  and  of  marvelous  strength  and  lightness, 
made  of  two  masses  of  fine  wire,  differing  in  hardness  and 
temper,  so  blended  together  as  to  give  the  appearance  on 
its  sides  of  microscopic  flowers.  The  process  of  manufacture 
is  said  to  be  a  secret,  a  genuine  "Damascus  blade"  bringing 
a  fabulous  price,  from  five  hundred  dollars  upward.  An 
Oriental  sword,  called  Yataghan,  is  also  common  among  the 
Arabs. ^ 

297.  The  Dagger. — The  Oriental  without  a  dagger  would 
be  regarded   with   wonder.     The  dagger  of  the   fellahin  of 

•  I  Sam.  26  :  7. 

'See  Judg  s  :  8;  i  Sam.  13  :  22;  17  :  45;  2  Chron.  11  :  12;  Job  39  :  23;  Jer.  46  : 4; 
Hab.  3:11.  3  I  Ssrn.  13  :  2;  14  :  52;  i  Chron.  27  :  i. 

*Deut.  33  :  29.  'See  Pal.  Quar.,  1905,  p.  116. 


204  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

Syria  is  two-edged,  slightly  curved,  from  nine  to  eighteen 
inches  long.  In  other  Eastern  lands  daggers  were  straight 
or  slightly  curved  at  the  end,  two-edged,  with  a  hilt  and  sheath. 
With  such  a  two-edged  dagger  Ehud  slew  Eglon,  King  of 
Moab.^  A  similar  dagger  or  "knife"  Abram  had  when  he 
was  about  to  offer  Isaac. ^  The  "pen-knife"  King  Jehoiakim 
used  to  cut  in  pieces  Jeremiah's  parchment  was  a  "  sheath- 
knife"  or  "sheathed  dagger,"  probably  with  a  convex  edge.^ 
Or  it  may  have  resembled  the  Egyptian  closed  knife,  used  also 
as  a  razor. 

The  Bedouins  of  to-day  have  the  type  well  described  by  the 
words  of  the  angel  to  Hagar  concerning  Ishmael:  "He  shall  be 
as  a  wild  ass  among  men ;  his  hand  shall  be  against  every  man, 
and  every  man's  hand  against  him."  *  The  peasant  or  fellah  at 
his  plow  has  a  dagger  in  his  belt,  a  sword  at  his  side,  or  a  gun 
swung  over  his  shoulder  for  fear  of  the  wandering  Bedouin. 
The  laborer  and  the  traveler  alike  usually  have  a  leathern 
girdle  full  of  daggers  and  pistols.  Arab  bandits,  descendants 
of  Ishmael,  and  their  spies  scour  the  land,  and  wat.h  springs 
of  water  for  companies  of  traders  and  travelers  poorly  de- 
fended, whom  they  may  swoop  down  on  to  capture,  spoil,  and 
rob  them.^ 

The  modem  Oriental  warrior  is  of  stem  character.  He 
bears  privation  and  misfortune  with  stoic  indifference — to 
revenge  himself  or  his  friends.  The  Arab  poetry,  like  that  of 
Homer,  tells  of  batde,  of  warriors  of  iron  character  dashing 
suddenly  upon  foes  and  performing  marvelous  feats  of  personal 
valor. 

298.  African  Warriors. — In  the  regions  of  Central  Africa 
travelers  have  lately  found  primitive  customs,  including 
military  armor  and  modes  of  warfare,  strikingly  illustrative 
of  many  of  the  Old  Testament  narratives.  These  primitive 
tribes  are  armed  with  spears,  swords,  bows,  and  poisoned 
arrows,  and  are  mighty  hunters.     Some  have  immense  shields 

•  Judg.  3  :  16.  *  Gen.  22  :  10.  •  Jer.  36  :  22,  23. 

«Gen.  16  :  12  (R.  V.).  'John  Teller,  PaJ.  Quar.,  1901,  pp.  189,  198. 


Oriental  Sword  Maker.  P.  203 

(Copyright  hy  L  'nderu'ood  &■  Uiulerwood,  New  Vo}-k.\ 


WARFARE.  205 

of  buffalo  hide,  and  great  clubs,  called  Knob-Kerry.  The 
natives  of  Uganda  divided  the  country  into  provinces,  each  with 
a  chief,  answerable  to  the  king.  These  chiefs  formed  a  council 
with  the  king  at  the  head.  The  organization  was  so  complete 
that  at  the  sound  of  the  king's  war-drum  the  whole  adult 
male  population  was  transformed  into  an  army,  with  marvel- 
ous celerity,  ready  to  march  whithersoever  the  king  com- 
manded. 

Another  pastoral  people  near  the  source  of  the  Nile  were 
grouped  in  clans,  having  a  large  number  of  trained  warriors, 
six  feet  or  more  in  height,  "straight  as  an  arrow,"  physically 
developed,  high  cheek  bones,  "beautiful  nose,"  "fierce  nomadic 
warriors,"  each  armed  with  a  large  heraldic  shield  marking 
his  clan,  and  brandishing  spears,  or  skilled  in  the  use  of  poisoned 
arrows,  ready  and  watchful  to  swoop  down  upon  the  enemy, 
sometimes  so  blood-thirsty  as  to  let  scarcely  one  escape  to  tell 
the  ghastly  story.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  these  African 
clans  still  arm  themselves  with  spears,  knives,  sticks,  clubs, 
bows,  and  arrows  for  the  fights,  as  of  old.^ 

Warlike  customs  among  many  primitive  Oriental  tribes 
are  much  the  same  now  as  in  ancient  times.  The  victors 
slay  the  vanquished,  search  the  dead  and  wounded,  taking 
possession  of  whatever  they  find.  They  destroy  or  carry 
away  all  valuables  from  a  sacked  city  or  hamlet,  having  no 
mercy  on  the  aged,  invalids,  women,  or  children.  This  is 
specially  characteristic  of  Moslems  when  attacking  those  of  an- 
other faith.  Their  fanaticism,  cruelty,  and  bloodshed  make 
them  the  terror  of  any  land.  They  remind  us  of  the  story 
of  the  horrid  siege  of  Samaria  by  the  Syrians,-  or  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,^  or  of  the  sweeping  destruction  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  in  the  conquest  of  their  land  by  Joshua. 

299.  Covenant  of  Peace.— The  modem  way  of  making  peace 

.  among  the  African  tribes  closely  resembles  that  of  four  thousand 

years  ago.     Among  the  African  Masaba  peoples,  after  a  fierce 

»  Purvis,  "Through  Uganda  to  Mt.  Eglon,"  p.  73- 

*  a  Kings  6  :  34  ff.  '  Matt.  25,  Josephus,  Bk.  vi. 


2o6  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

and  fruitless  war  among  the  clans,  neither  side  likely  to  win, 
peace  is  proposed  and  sanctioned  by  sacrifice.  The  sacrificial 
animal  is  cut  into  two  pieces  where  the  batde  took  place. 
Where  two  clans  at  war  find  that  neither  is  likely  to  be  master, 
they  agree  to  a  peace  compact,  which  no  man  nor  woman  would 
dare  to  break.  To  sanction  the  covenant  a  dog  is  brought 
to  the  border,  cut  in  two,  where  many  fights  have  taken  place. 
One  half  of  the  dog  is  placed  on  the  territory  of  one  clan,  and 
the  other  half  on  that  of  the  other  clan.  The  warriors  of  each 
clan  march  in  procession  between  the  halves,  which  are  then 
spumed  by  both  parties.  Handshaking  and  merriment  fol- 
low, and  from  that  time  the  clans  are  friendly.* 

In  precisely  similar  manner  covenants  were  sanctioned  in 
ancient  days.  Thus,  even  Jehovah  is  represented  as  saying, 
"I  will  give  the  men  that  have  transgressed  my  covenant,  that 
have  not  performed  the  words  of  my  covenant  which  they  made 
before  me,  when  they  cut  the  calf  in  twain,  and  passed  between 
the  parts  thereof."  ^  Again,  in  the  days  of  Abram,  a  compact 
was  sanctioned  by  sacrificial  animals  that  were  cut  in  two,  and 
each  half  laid  over  against  the  other  half,  a  flaming  torch  passing 
between  the  pieces  after  dark.^ 

300.  Spoils. — The  Arabs  usually  carry  all  the  spoils  to  the 
chief,  or  sheikh,  to  divide  according  to  well-established  rules. 
If  they  capture  camels,  catde,  sheep,  money,  jewelry,  or  house- 
hold goods,  such  as  rugs,  cooking  utensils,  and  the  like,  they 
take  all  to  the  chief  of  their  tribe.  The  spoils  are  placed  in  a 
pile,  and  he  takes  a  share  of  them;  the  remainder  he  divides 
among  his  followers.  If  one  has  no  sword,  to  him  he  gives  a 
sword,  those  who  were  daring  in  scouting  or  fighting  are  re- 
warded, and  those  who  have  otherv^ise  risked  their  lives  to 
discover  the  strength  of  the  enemy  or  his  location,  also  have 
special  reward.  This  throws  light  on  the  award  to  Caleb  and 
Joshua,  of  David  and  his  band,  and  upon  many  other  like  cases 
in  Scripture.* 

*  Purvis,  "  Uganda  to  Mt.  Eglon,"  p.  2Q2.  '  Jer.  34  :  18. 

'Gen.  15  :  9-17.     See  Purvis,  "  Uganda  to  Mt.  Eglon,"  p.  292. 
*See  Josh.  14  and  15;  i  Sam.  30  :  14-25. 


WARFARE.  207 

301.  Warrior  Customs. — There  is  a  trait  in  the  Oriental 
soldier  that  amazes  the  Western  mind;  that  is  his  great  fru- 
gality', and  his  capacity  to  endure  hunger  and  thirst  without 
complaint.  The  economy  of  an  Oriental  army,  particularly 
without  any  commissaiiat,  \\dth  only  bread  and  olives,  or  meal 
and  cheese,  often  without  tents,  sleeping  on  the  ground  under 
the  canopy  of  heaven,  make  the  problem  of  moving  an  Oriental 
army  vastly  simpler  and  more  economical  than  in  Western 
warfare.  Witness  the  economy  in  this  respect  among  the 
armies  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 

The  severity  in  dealing  \vith  captives  and  with  forms  of  re- 
volt shocks  our  sense.  Thus,  Morier  relates  that  "a  pretender 
to  the  Persian  crovra  was  mockingly  mounted  upon  an  ass 
(the  royal  beast),  with  his  face  toward  the  tail,  the  tail  in  his 
hand,  a  mock  crown  on  his  head,  a  sword  by  his  side,  and  was 
thus  paraded  through  the  camp,  a  crier  going  before,  and  pro- 
claiming, 'This  is  he  who  would  be  king.'  He  was  then 
stripped,  scourged,  spit  upon,  and  finally  his  eyes  put  out."* 

This  instance  well  illustrates  the  treatment  of  Zedekiah  by 
the  Assyrians,  and  of  Jesus  by  the  Jews.^ 

*  Morier,  vol.  ii,  p.  351. 

»  See  2  Kings  25  :  7;  Matt.  27  :  27-31.     Compare  also  2  Kings  19  :  28. 


XXVI. 


MECHANICAL   ARTS. 


302.  Metal  and  Wood  Workers. — The  "lost  arts,"  once  known 
to  the  Orientals,  but  now  absolutely  lost  to  the  world,  would 
fill  a  long  chapter  in  the  history  of  mechanical  arts.  We  must 
not  overlook  this  fact.  Moreover,  we  will  do  well  to  remember 
in  looking  for  light  from  modern  Oriental  life  upon  the  arts 
referred  to  in  the  sacred  writings  that  the  Orientals  of  three 
thousand  to  four  thousand  years  ago  were  relatively  far  more 
advanced  in  inventions,  in  artistic  and  skilled  work  than  now. 
Thus,  they  seem  to  have  been  familiar  with  processes  for  mak- 
ing bronze  flexible,  for  mixing  durable  and  brilliant  colors  and 
pigments  for  mural  paintings,  for  making  glass  malleable  or 
flexible,  not  now  known  to  Orientals  nor  to  us.  Of  course, 
they  were  familiar,  as  they  are  now,  with  gilding,  plating,  and 
covering  wood  and  ivory  figures  vdth  gold  and  other  precious 
metals.  Layard  found  ivory  figures  covered  with  gold-leaf, 
or  traces  of  it,  in  Assyria.  An  Egyptian  mummy  has  been  found 
wTapped  in  a  similar  way. 

The  development  of  mechanical  arts  began  originally  in  the 
East,  but  their  origin  is  buried  in  obscurity.  The  earliest  needs 
of  man  would  be  food  and  clothing.  Food  would  be  easily 
supplied  there  by  natural  fruits  and  grains,  and  would  require 
litde  skilled  labor.*  According  to  the  Genesis  account,  gar- 
ments to  clothe  the  race  were  made  from  leaves  of  trees,  sewed 
together  by  thread,  made  from  the  fibre  of  plants.  Such  cloth  is 
still  made  from  plants,  by  primitive  tribes,  in  Central  Africa. 
The  primitive  garment  was  "the  girdle"  ["aprons"  of  the  A. 
v.,  or  things  to  gird  about  him,  margin]  after  the  expulsion 
from  Eden.^ 

Very  early,  how  early  we  know  not,  man  learned  to  use  the 

•  See  Social  Intercourse,  xiv.  •  Gen.  3:7;  see  xv. 

208 


Metal  Workers  P.  209. 

IN    IRON,    COPPER,    AND    BRASS — SICKLE    SHARPENER    ON    LEFT. 

^Copyright  by  Underwood  Sj'  Under7uood,  A'e7v  Voyk.) 


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PoTTEK  -    \\  "11. SHOP,  Syria. 

(5^.  £.  Hanauer.) 


V,  209 


MECHANICAL   ARTS.  209 

various  metals.  Thus  it  is  said  that,  "  Jubal :  he  was  the  father 
of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  pipe."  The  term  "father" 
is  here  applied,  as  I  have  elsewhere  explained,  to  one  who  is  the 
head  or  leader,  showing  that  Jubal  was  distinguished  in  this 
work,  but  probably  not  the  first.  He  was  rather  the  head  of  a 
large  company  of  those  who  were  skilled  in  the  making  of  musical 
instruments.  So  also  the  sacred  account  mentions  Tubal-cain, 
or  "Tubal  the  smith,"  as  the  "whetter"  or  "forger  of  every 
cutting  instrument  of  brass  and  iron"  or  copper  bronze  and  iron. 
The  rendering  "iron"  is  questioned, as  that  of  "brass"  is  also 
disputed.  The  true  rendering  may  be  copper  and  bronze, 
for  wherever  brass  is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  it  is  now 
believed  to  designate  bronze,  and  not  modern  brass.  Thus, 
Tubal  was  a  smith,  making  tools  for  farmers,  carpenters,  build- 
ers, and  weapons  for  defense. 

303.  Workshops  Rare. — Skilled  Oriental  artisans,  not  influ- 
enced by  Western  ideas,  do  not  have  shops  in  small  villages 
as  with  us.  Those  who  follow  trades,  as  smiths,  carpenters, 
builders,  or  joiners  in  small  villages  are  wandering  persons, 
going  about  as  journeymen.  Thus,  Rev.  F.  A.  Klein  (who 
discovered  the  Moabite  stone)  tells  us  that  in  some  villages  there 
is  not  a  single  artisan.^  The  fellahin  are  now  dependent  on 
German  mechanics,  copper-smiths,  silver-smiths,  gun-makers, 
and  cover-makers,  who  travel  from  place  to  place  as  they  find 
work.  On  the  far  side  of  the  Jordan  there  are  smiths,  however, 
in  some  smaller  villages,  where  the  surname  "haddad,"  smith, 
or  forger,  is  quite  common.  The  blacksmith,  or  worker  in 
iron,  is  called  in  Arabic  Hadld,  which  corresponds  to  the 
Hebrew  haras h  barzel,  literally  "worker  in  iron."  ^  The  worker 
in  brass  and  copper  is  called  in  Arabic  nahhdsh. 

304.  Metal  Vessels. — The  better  class  of  Arabs  have  cop- 
per kitchen  utensils,  and  even  the  poorer  classes  now  have 
a  kettie  of  copper.  Some  of  these  vessels  are  lined  with 
zinc  to  prevent  corroding  with  acid  foods.     In  almost  every 

'  Zeitschrift  Ger.  Pal.  Ex.  Soc,  i88i;  see  Eng.  Pal.  Quarterly,  1881,  p.  297. 
'  Isa.  44  :  12  with  Gen.  4  :  22. 

14 


2IO  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

household  now  there  will  be  a  large  kettle  with  two  handles 
a  little  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  used  to  boil  water, 
and  to  cook  large  quantities  of  food,  such  as  rice,  or  a  whole 
sheep,  since  the  peasants  rarely  cook  small  quantities  of  meat. 
This  ketde  has  no  cover,  and  is  put  on  an  iron  tripod,  and  no 
doubt  is  like  that  used  by  the  prophet  at  the  religious  feast.^ 
The  peasants  also  have  a  common,  every-day  kettle,  smaller 
than  the  caldron,  which  has  a  cover,  and  may  be  one  of  the  four 
mentioned  in  the  above  passage  as  kiyyor.  The  other  common 
metal  dish  is  the  frying-pan,  sometimes  of  copper,  but  now 
more  often  among  the  poorer  classes  of  iron.  Various  kinds 
of  trays  and  bowls  of  different  sizes  used  for  washing  the  hands 
are  a  common  outfit  in  the  village  houses,  and  usually  with  a 
copper  jug, 

305.  Silversmiths. — The  gold-  and  silversmiths  in  the  larger 
towns  are  found  in  one  street.  They  make  the  gold  plates, 
earrings,  corals,  bracelets,  and  ornaments  worn  by  nearly  all 
classes.  For,  as  heretofore  stated,  the  wealth  of  individuals, 
and  especially  of  maids  and  girls,  consists  in  the  ornaments 
upon  their  persons.  The  metal  worker  also  is  skilful  in  making 
spears,  known  as  hdrhet,  a  short  spear  now  carried  commonly  by 
dervishes.     The  Bedouin  also  carry  long  spears. 

306.  Carpenter. — The  Oriental  carpenter  or  joiner  in  a 
country  like  Palestine  has  not  wood  enough  now  to  make  large 
things,  but  he  fits  up  doors,  windows,  cradles,  low  tables, 
small  chairs,  chests  for  the  women,  and  the  like.  Many  of 
these  articles  are  made  in  imitation  of  Western  furniture,  and 
do  not  strictly  belong  to  true  Oriental  life.  They  are  impor- 
tations. The  Arab  carpenter  has  one  indispensable  tool  al- 
ways at  hand,  the  adze,  which  he  calls  kaddum.  In  Egypt 
it  is  called  jnuksJiut.  The  plane  is  not  an  Oriental  tool;  it 
was  introduced  from  Europe.  The  next  indispensable  tool 
for  the  Arab  carpenter  is  the  saw,  Arabic  munshac,  Hebrew 
massar?  The  awl,  or  the  auger,  is  not  an  instrument  like 
those  in  use  with  us.     It  is  turned  by  a  handle  and  string, 

'  1  Sam.  2  :  14.  '  Isa.  10  :  15. 


MECHANICAL   ARTS.  211 

resembling  a  whip.  The  leather  string  is  twisted  once  around 
the  handle  of  the  iron  borer,  and  pulling  back  and  forth  drives 
it  into  the  wood.  The  carpenter  makes  wooden  locks  and 
keys  for  the  houses,  as  well  as  windows  and  doors.  The 
hammer,  pliers,  pincers,  or  tongs;  the  vise,  the  file,  and  the 
rule,  or  square  are  common  instruments  now  among  Orientals, 
both  with  wood  and  metal  workers. 

307.  Cmde  Tools.— To  Western  eyes  the  tools  of  both  the 
metal  and  wood  workers  of  the  Orient  seem  very  crude  and 
primitive,  yet  their  products  are  sometimes  marvels  of  skill 
and  genius.  Every  observer  and  student  of  history  is  com- 
pelled to  conclude  that  the  evolution  of  Oriental  invention 
and  skilled  workmanship,  either  in  wood  or  in  metal,  has  been 
an  evolution  backward. 

308.  Oriental  Skill.— For  the  Oriental  formerly  knew  how  to 
move  immense  blocks  of  stone,  like  those  of  Baalbec.  He  did 
also  plan  and  build  the  great  pyramids,  things  which  he  looks 
upon  as  impossible  nov/.  The  skill  to  accomplish  these  things 
is  among  the  lost  arts.  The  durable  and  the  brilliant  tints 
v/ithin  the  wonderful  tombs,  tints  which  have  remained  appar- 
ently as  fresh  and  strong  as  the  day  they  were  painted,  over 
three  thousand  or  four  thousand  years  ago,  cannot  now  be 
reproduced  by  any  kno^vll  art. 

The  works  of  great  art  which  the  world  still  admires  and 
copies,  those  of  Phidias  and  the  great  masters,  are  not  the 
production  of  this  century,  but  of  nearly  twenty-five  centuries 
ago,  and  in  the  East.  Modem  engineers  and  artisans  sit 
before  these  wonderful  productions  in  biblical  times  and 
lands  puzzled  even  now  to  understand  how  these  marvelous 
achievements  were  done  in  former  times.  How  long  the 
East  has  knowoi  some  other  skilful  arts  is  unkno\Mi.  Thus, 
Egypt  over  a  century  ago,  was  famous  for  extensive  and  suc- 
cessful incubators,  its  hatcheries  turning  out  millions  of  young 
birds  from  eggs  by  artificial  methods.* 

As  an  evidence  that  the  supremacy  of  the  East  in  arts  and 

>  See  Lane,  "  Modem  Egyptians."  vol.  ii,  p.  6. 


212  ORIEKTALISilS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

arms,  once  so  marked,  and  long  ago  lost,  it  is  worthy  of  note, 
that  even  in  the  last  century  Eastern  looms  were  still  weaving 
the  celebrated  silk  fabrics  and  costly  rugs  from  the  Orient, 
which  brought  fabulous  prices  in  our  Western  markets.  They 
remind  us  of  the  tapestries  and  "luxurious  hangings"  of  the  days 
of  Bezaleel,  and  of  Solomon,  described  in  Scriptures.^  It  is 
unnecessary  to  point  out  the  causes  which  have  led  to  this 
decline  in  Eastern  art.  No  doubt  the  scientific  inventions 
of  the  W^est  during  the  past  century  have  aided  in  dispelling 
the  charm  of  Oriental  productions. 

The  exclusive  regulations  of  arts  and  trades  in  the  East 
tended  also  to  promote  their  perfection  on  the  one  hand,  and 
to  destroy  their  permanence  en  the  other.  To  this  day  certain 
rare  arts  are  monopolized  by  families,  classes,  and  races  in  the 
East,  and  the  secret  is  never  revealed  to  other  than  their 
children,  who  succeed  them  in  these  arts.  So  was  it  in  the 
time  of  Solomon  and  Hiram,  whose  chief  artists  learned  the 
trade  from  their  fathers,  and  never  allowed  it  to  go  out  of  their 
family  or  guild.  To  such  a  guild  belonged  Demetrius  and 
craftsmen  of  his  order.  No  modem  "artisan  guild "  or 
"labor  union"  vras  ever  so  strict  in  limiting  journeymen,  who 
might  learn  the  trade,  and  in  guarding  the  secrets  of  it  as  were 
these  ancient  Oriental  trades,  craftsmen,  and  labor  guilds. 

»  Ex.  35  :  30-35;  3  Chroa.  2  :  13,  14. 


Oriental  Lathe  and  Chair  Maker. 

(Copyright  by  Underwood  Sr  UnderTvood,  New  York.) 


V.   2IO 


XXVII. 


TRADES. 


The  old  Semitic  proverb,  "Whoever  does  not  teach  his 
son  a  trade,  is  as  if  he  brought  him  up  to  be  a  robber,"* 
is  a  sentiment  widely  prevalent  among  Orientals.  There  is 
a  saying  in  Damascus,  told  by  a  native,  "to  be  master  of  a 
trade  is  Uke  a  band  of  gold  about  the  arm."  Skilled  manual 
labor,  therefore,  is  counted  worthy  and  honorable.  A  learned 
professor  even  may  sometimes  be  found  in  his  workshop  de- 
voting part  of  his  time  to  watch-making  or  as  a  jeweler. 

309.  Honorable  and  Humble.— There  are  some  excep- 
tions to  this.  The  trade  of  the  shoemaker,  or  tanner,  is  not 
highly  esteemed.  If  you  ask  such  a  person  what  his  occupa- 
tion is,  he  will  apologetically  reply,  "May  God  exalt  your  state, 
I  am  a  shoemaker";  or,  "  Saving  your  presence,  I  am  a  cobbler." 
In  keeping  with  this  sentiment,  all  tradesmen  try  to  have  boys 
or  inferiors  to  do  the  coarser  work.  A  cook  must  always  have 
a  scullion;  just  as  with  us,  a  bricklayer  or  mason  must  have 
a  hod-carrier,  so  in  the  Orient. 

310.  Master  Craftsmen. — Large  industries  in  some  cities, 
such  as  silversmiths,  have  a  master  craftsman,  who  may  attain 
great  influence.  Mr.  Haddad,  a  native  Syrian,  speaks  of  such 
a  person  elected  as  a  ruler,  or  arbitrator,  over  those  in  that 
trade.  He  may  be  recognized  by  the  government,  and  so  be 
entided  to  test  the  gold  or  silver  articles  manufactured,  and 
to  stamp  them  as  pure  or  up  to  the  proper  standard  of  purity. 
He  will  represent  his  fellow  craftsmen  in  courts,  and  be  re- 
sponsible for  their  protection  and  for  their  behavior,  and 
may  arbitrate  their  disputes.  Such  a  master  craftsman  was 
Demetrius  among  the  silversmiths  of  Ephesus.^  The  silver- 
smiths make  rings,  bracelets,  necklaces,  ear-rings,  nose-rings, 

»  Kidd,  ap.  *  Acts  19  :  24,  25. 

213 


214  ORIENTALISMS   IN    BIBLE   LANDS. 

set  precious  stones,  make  crovms  or  coronets,  girdles  of  \-aried 
design,  gold  and  silver  bands  for  the  ankles,  with  little  silver 
bells  attached,  and  all  shapes  and  forms  of  beautiful  jewels 
and  jewelry  which  the  Oriental  artisan  so  skilfully  devises, 
including  cups,  lamps,  curtains,  candlesticks,  altar  pieces, 
and  ornaments  of  every  sort  to  adorn  the  person  or  to  decorate 
the  house. 

311.  Sit  at  Work. — All  Oriental  workmen  sit  while  at  work. 
An  Oriental  workman  never  stands  if  he  can  help  it.  The 
silversmith  has  a  small  anvil,  vise,  and  a  funnel-shaped  fur- 
nace, a  skin  bag  for  bellows  worked  by  two  handles,  and  a 
boy  to  work  them.  The  furnace  is  heated  usually  with  char- 
coal. The  smiths  are  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  blow-pipe. 
They  are  often  very  skilful  in  engraving,  ornamenting,  and 
chasing  on  silver  and  gold. 

312.  Pay  in  Advance. — Skilled  and  trained  workmen  in 
manual  trades  usually  require  pay  in  advance  in  the  East. 
They  have  little  or  no  capital,  hence  workmen  like  carpenters, 
masons,  and  stone  dressers,  after  a  very  old  custom,  expect 
money  to  be  provided.  When  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  was 
repaired  in  the  reign  of  Joash,  and  again  in  the  reign  of  Josiah, 
the  narrative  indicates  plainly  that  the  laborers  and  skilled 
workmen  were  paid  in  advance,  not  only  for  their  work,  but 
money  was  put  in  their  hands  to  purchase  the  material  for  all 
those  repairs.^  This  old  custom  still  lingers  in  the  East, 
though  it  is  gradually  being  displaced  by  the  Western  practice 
of  contractors.  Or,  perhaps,  it  is  more  accurate  to  say  that 
the  older  Babylonian  plan  of  master  builders,  taking  the 
responsibility  of  the  work,  is  being  revived  among  the  more 
progressive  peoples  of  the  East. 

313.  Trades  Guilds. — Trades  unions  are  not  common  in  the 
Orient,  but  trades  guilds  are.  It  is  common  for  workmen  of 
like  occupation  to  herd  together,  to  be  grouped  in  quarters  near 
to  one  another  in  Oriental  cities.  Thus,  Aquila  and  Priscilla 
and  Paul  were  of  the  same  craft,  "tentmakers,"  hence  they 

•  Se«  2  Kings  12  :  11;  2  Chron.  24  :  12. 


TRADES.  215 

drifted  naturally  into  the  same  quarter  of  Corinth,  and  became 
colaborers,  not  only  in  tent-making,  but  in  gospel  work.' 

Guilds  exist  among  the  silversmiths  of  the  Orient  to  this 
day.  Similar  guilds  are  formed  by  the  fruiterers,  drug- venders, 
and  even  muleteers  and  merchants,  who  gather  in  one  comer, 
or  stop  at  the  same  khan  in  a  city,  thus  being  together  for  mutual 
protection,  information,  and  advantage,  or  are  within  call  for 
this  purpose. 

314.  Tent-making. — Tent-making  is  still  an  independent  and 
popular  occupation  in  the  East,  and  often  has  a  special  market 
for  these  articles.  It  was  once  a  far  more  popular  trade  than 
now.  It  is  said  that  many  celebrated  and  learned  men,  and 
even  kings,  preferred  it  to  a  life  of  ease  or  of  amusement.  An 
Oriental  king,  after  disposing  of  questions  of  state  for  the  day, 
it  is  said,  retired  with  his  wife  to  a  humble  room  in  the  palace, 
and  together  they  would  weave  baskets  of  palm  leaves,  and  send 
them  secredy  to  market  for  sale.  No  one  who  sold  or  bought 
them  knew  who  made  them. 

315.  ''Bargains." — The  "bargain  counter"  and  "bargain 
shop,"  that  lowers  the  dignity  and  degrades  the  ethical  and  social 
ideals  of  the  best  trade  in  civilized  lands  to-day,  had  their  earlier 
counterpart  in  the  Eastern  bazaar.  Any  person  is  regarded  as 
"green,"  if  not  idiotic,  who  would  pay  what  is  asked  for  any 
article  in  an  Eastern  shop.  The  salesman  there  always  asks  a 
price  he  never  expects  to  get,  and  the  buyer  never  expects  to 
pay.  The  original  price  is  lowered  once,  twice,  thrice,  so  that 
for  what  a  hundred  was  asked,  thirty  is  often  accepted  with  per- 
fect satisfaction.  Such  is  the  perverted  and  deep-seated  char- 
acter of  this  bargain  business  in  the  Orient  that  no  purchaser  is 
ever  sure  that  he  has  not  paid  too  much  for  what  he  buys. 
No  matter  what  he  buys,  the  price  must  be  reduced  to  make 
a  sale,  even  if  it  is  the  merest  trifle;  in  the  price,  though  trifling, 
there  must  be  a  reduction.  It  is  thoroughly  debasing  there  to  the 
morals  and  to  the  honesty  of  buyer  and  seller. 

Native  workers  in  colored  cloths,  like  purple  and  fine  linen, 

•  Acts  18  : 1-3 


2l6  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE   LANDS. 

worn  by  persons  of  wealth  and  distinction,  are  being  displaced 
in  modem  times,  since  these  fabrics  are  now  being  largely  im- 
ported and  made  by  machinery. 

Payments  are  now  made  chiefly  in  coin,  but  barter  and  ex- 
change are  also  widely  prevalent  in  the  Orient.  Formerly 
in  the  East  coins  of  gold  and  silver  were  weighed.  This  Vv'as 
like  an  inspection  or  test  and  to  see  whether  the  coins  were  full 
weight,  as  required  by  law.  If  short  of  weight,  the  coin  would 
be  refused,  or  discounted,  and  taken  at  its  real  value. 

316.  Basket  Makers.— Bz.s\.ei  manufacturers  are  plentiful  in 
the  East.  The  baskets  are  of  three  kinds:  (i)  the  kujjah, 
woven  of  palm  leaves,  and  in  the  shape  of  a  fez.  It  has  two 
handles,  one  on  each  side,  and  one  loop  or  handle  is  longer  than 
the  other.  The  longer  loop  is  passed  through  the  shorter  one, 
so  the  basket  is  drawn  together,  pardy  closing  it.  This  is 
used  for  provisions,  and  holds  an  amount  about  equal  to  our 
bushel.  (2)  The  sell,  made  of  bamboo  or  twigs,  resembling 
rattan,  and  shaped  like  a  teacup.  These  are  used  for  fish,  fruit, 
grapes,  or  figs.  It  is  much  larger  than  the  first-mentioned 
basket.  (3)  The  large  basket,  or  zembeel,  made  of  palm,  hemp, 
or  flax,  is  used  for  grain.  It  is  the  largest  basket  of  these  three, 
and  v/as  probably  the  one  used  to  let  Paul  down  by  the  wall 
when  he  escaped  from  Damascus.^  The  smallest,  or  hand 
basket,  is  the  one  that  was  used  in  gathering  up  the  fragments 
at  the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand.-  The  medium  basket, 
number  two,  is  the  one  that  appears  to  have  been  used  in  gather- 
ing the  fragments  at  the  feeding  of  the  four  thousand.^ 

»  Acts  9  ;  25.  *  Matt.  14  :  30.  *  Matt  15  :  37. 


Inlaid  Pearl  Workers. 

SITTING    AT   WORK. 

(.Copyright  by  Underwood  &■  Underwood,  Neio  York.) 


P.   214 


XXVIII. 

MUSIC  AND  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

On  ancient  Hebrew  music  modern  biblical  scholars  find 
themselves  in  a  quagmire,  and  confess  that  little  is  known  of 
the  nature  of  the  music  of  Hebrew  singers  and  players  on 
musical  instruments. 

317.  What  is  Good  Music? — It  is  of  great  importance,  then, 
to  gather  the  little  information  possible  on  Oriental  music  and 
musical  instruments,  in  order  to  throw  light  upon  the  many 
biblical  narratives,  whose  chief  charm  consists  in  allusions  to 
this  obscure,  but  very  interesting  feature  of  life  in  Bible  lands. 

Scholars  infer  that  the  Psalms  were  chanted,  but  did  these 
chants  resemble  in  any  respect  what  we  designate  by  that  term  ? 
Hitherto  the  Western  mind  has  looked  on  the  Oriental  as  pos- 
sessing httle  musical  taste  or  skill.  Their  performances  are 
counted  wild,  weird,  and  wanting  in  musical  discernment. 
But  the  Oriental  returns  this  criticism  vdth  interest,  for  he  looks 
upon  European  and  Western  music  as  peculiar,  strange,  want- 
ing in  delicacy  of  tone,  and  not  fitted  to  give  real  pleasure  to  his 
ear.  Neither  party  can  rashly  condemn  nor  harshly  criticize 
the  taste  and  skill  of  the  other. 

318.  Oriental  Musical  Scale. — Western  opinion  in  regard  to 
Oriental  music  has  changed  in  recent  times.  Thus,  it  has  been 
discovered  that  the  trained  Arab  of  Egypt  has  some  aptitude, 
and  a  delicate,  if  peculiar  taste,  in  distinguishing  and  making 
gradations  in  his  music  and  song.  He  requires  a  division  of 
whole  tones  of  the  scale  into  thirds,  rather  than  into  semi-tones 
alone.  He  regards  the  Western  system  of  music  as  sadly  de- 
ficient in  its  number  of  musical  sounds.  The  Oriental  peas- 
ants attain  a  peculiar  skill  in  executing  these  easy  gradations 
in  chanting  and  singing,  using  a  musical  song  as  a  relief  in  their 
work. 

217 


21 8  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE    LANDS. 

Thus,  the  native  boatmen  of  the  Nile  swing  their  oars  in 
rowing  to  the  notes  of  a  song.  The  monotonous  labor  of  work- 
ing the  shadoof,  for  raising  water,  is  relieved  by  similar  chants. 
The  porter,  staggering  under  his  mountain  load  of  trunks,  the 
boys  and  the  girls  with  bricks  and  mortar,  or  running  of  errands, 
the  man  at  the  saw,  or  swinging  the  sickle,  or  in  any  kind  of 
labor,  often  regulate  their  motions,  and  brighten  the  dulness  of 
their  work  by  some  chant  or  by  the  cadences  of  some  popular 
ballad  and  song. 

Why  has  the  Oriental  such  a  different  point  of  view,  and  so 
widely  varied  a  judgment  in  music?  Partiy  because  of  the 
structure  of  the  musical  scale.  In  Oriental  music  the  sweetness 
and  charm  centers  closely  about  the  melody.  Their  more  deli- 
cate gradations  of  sound,  as  compared  with  Western  music,  give 
a  peculiar  softness  to  the  melody,  which,  in  some  measure, 
compensates  for  the  lack  of  other  parts  in  a  harmony  or  sym- 
phony. 

This  radical  difiference  in  the  structure  of  their  musical  scale 
was  long  a  puzzle  to  musicians  of  the  West.  They  found  that 
Oriental  melodies  seemed  to  be  set  in  the  minor  key,  and  were, 
of  course,  without  symphony  or  harmonizing  parts.  Even  so, 
they  were  unable  to  reproduce  Oriental  music  on  Western 
musical  instruments.  The  stringed  and  wind  instruments  of 
the  West  required  to  be  made  over  to  reproduce  Oriental  melo- 
dies even.  Wliy  was  this?  Because  the  Oriental  musical  scale 
differs  from  that  used  in  the  West,  and  also  because  the  Western 
musical  octave  has  only  tones  and  semi-tones,  while  the  Oriental 
scale  has  tones,  semi-tones,  and  quarter-tones. 

319.  Hindu  Musical  Scale. — Thus,  the  musical  octave  of 
India  has  seven  chief  notes,  as  with  us,  but  while  we  have  twelve 
semi-tones,  that  of  India  has  twenty-two  intervals,  that  is, 
audible  sounds.  Obser\'ers  and  writers  are  agreed  that  the 
intervals  between  the  whole  tones  in  the  Oriental  scale  are  not 
equal  in  the  same  sense  that  they  are  in  the  Western  scale. 
WTiether  the  intervals  are  according  to  a  fixed  proportion  be- 
tween the  semi-tones,  thirds,   and  quarter-tones  they  are  not 


MUSIC   AND  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS.  219 

agreed.  The  music  thus  produced  is  generally  in  unison,  and 
is  confined  to  an  air  or  melody. 

Some  observers  assert  that  the  first,  fourth,  fifth,  and  eighth 
tones  of  the  Oriental  musical  scale  correspond  closely  to  those  of 
the  Western  musical  scale.  Thus,  Dr.  Henry  J.  Van  Lennep,  out 
of  his  lifetime  experience  as  a  missionary  in  Syria,  has  tabulated 
the  number  of  vibrations  of  notes  in  the  European  scale,  as 
compared  with  those  in  the  Oriental  musical  scale,  to  shov^  that 
the  four  chief  tones  in  the  two  scales  are  substantially  aHke  in 
respect  to  pitch.  He  also  has  noted  the  naturally  and  extremely 
fine  quality  of  the  Oriental  voice.  They  sing  in  modes  of  time 
unknown  in  Western  music,  often  alternating  one  kind  of 
measure  mth  another.  This  mixed-measure  singing  seems  to 
delight  them.  It  is  the  general  testimony  that  attempts  to  ex- 
press Oriental  music  by  our  system  of  notation  is  a  failure. 
We  cannot  express  it  on  our  instruments,  for  as  one  facetiously 
says,  "We  must  always  begin  by  tuning  our  instruments  wrong 
if  we  perform  their  music  at  all."  Their  tones,  semi-tones,  and 
quarter-tones,  and  trills  upon  a  single  note  are  the  despair  of 
all  Western  writers  of  music  on  paper.  Even  their  intonations 
in  common  conversation  are  such  as  utterly  to  bafHe  the  power 
of  a  Western  voice  to  reproduce. 

Oriental  music  has  changed  raarvelously  during  historic 
times.  Thus,  Dr.  D.  O.  Allen,  in  his  history  of  India,  notes 
that  music  was  far  more  cultivated  in  ancient  times  in  India  than 
in  modem  days.  And  we  must  not  forget  that  music  has  changed 
not  a  little  in  past  generations,  and  has  really  grown  to  be  an  art 
in  Western  life  within  the  past  few  centuries.  Even  now  we 
are  not  agreed  in  many  things  concerning  the  highest  class  of 
music.  While  we  have  reduced  the  art  to  scientific  accuracy 
in  many  respects,  yet  even  in  the  pitch  of  a  single  note  the 
vibrations  are  not  counted  the  same  by  all  classes  of  musicians. 
We  have  the  old  classical  pitch  of  415  to  430  vibrations,  the 
French  pitch  of  435  vibrations,  the  concert  pitch  of  440  to  455 
vibrations.  For  the  "a  "above  middle  "c",  or  applying  it  to  the 
middle  "c"  we  have  the  old  pitch  of  256  vibrations,  the  French 


220  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

pitch  of  261  vibrations,  the  concert  pitch  of  270  vibrations.* 
The  pitch  or  key,  of  course,  depends  upon  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions per  second.  The  greater  number  of  vibrations,  the  higher 
is  the  pitch.  An  EngUsh  professor  of  music  gives  four  different 
keys  or  pitches  to  treble  "c. "  In  like  manner  music  has  changed 
among  the  Orientals,  but  from  their  mode  of  treating  the  scale 
and  of  dividing  the  tones  we  may  gain  some  light  upon  the 
allusions  to  music  and  musical  instruments  in  the  Bible. 

320.  Mimcal  Instruments. — The  educated  Moslem  of  the 
East  looks  on  the  study  of  music  as  unworthy  of  a  man  of 
sense.  The  prophet  Mohammed  condemned  it,  classing  it 
among  the  amusements  which  led  to  frivohty  and  vice,  yet  his 
followers  to-day  often  chant,  rather  than  recite,  the  sacred  book, 
the  Koran.  As  e\idence  that  Mohammed  was  not  wholly 
wrong.  Lane,  in  his  study  of  the  modem  Egyptians,  found  many 
professional  musicians  in  Egypt  dissolute,  and  some  of  them 
scarcely  less  disreputable  than  professional  public  dancers,  but 
they  were  not  all  so.  Female  musicians  were  called  'Awa'lim, 
singular  'A'lifneh,  meaning  a  learned  female.  These  pro- 
fessional female  musicians  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
public  dancers,  however.  The  latter  belong  to  a  different  tribe, 
or,  at  least,  have  a  different  origin,  and  were  formerly  known  as 
the  Ghawazee.  The  cultivation  and  prevalence  of  music  differs 
in  Oriental  lands  as  v/ith  us,  but  among  them  all  the  taste  pre- 
vails, while  the  development  of  the  ballad,  the  song,  and  of 
musical  instruments  is  adapted  to  the  peculiar  conditions  and 
training  of  the  various  peoples. 

321.  Three  Kinds. — Oriental  musical  instruments  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes:  (i)  stringed  instruments;  (2)  wind 
instruments;  (3)  instruments  of  percussion,  as  drums,  tam- 
bourines, metal  bars,    bells,  and   the  like.      Before  Western 

'  Scientific  investigation  shows  that  the  lowest  simple  sound  that  can  be  distinguished 
by  the  ear  is  caused  by  fifteen  or  sixteen  vibrations  in  a  second.  In  practice,  the  pipe  made 
to  sound  the  lowest  note  by  organ  builders  is  thirty-two  feet  long,  making  about  that  num- 
ber of  vibrations  per  second.  The  highest  note  beyond  which  the  ear  cannot  distinguish 
a  single  sound  requires  about  48,000  vibrations  in  a  second.  The  limit  of  the  human  voice 
in  music  is  approximately  betv.  een  eighty-seven  vibrations  a  second  for  the  lowest  note,  and 
about  4200  vibrations  for  the  highest  note. 


MUSIC   AND   MUSICAL   INSTRUMENTS.  221 

ideas  influenced  Oriental  peoples  there  were  various  forms  of 
the  viol,  or  "violin,"  but  wholly  different  in  shape  and  ap- 
pearance from  our  instrument  of  that  name.  For  example, 
the  Egyptian  viol  was  given  a  name  which  is  supposed  to  be 
Persian,  kematigeh,  believed  to  signify  a  bow  instrument. 
This  was  about  a  yard  long,  the  sounding  body  was  a  part 
of  a  cocoanut,  with  a  fourth  part  of  the  nut  cut  off,  and  the 
rest  hollowed  out  and  covered  with  the  skin  of  a  fish.  Upon 
this  rested  the  bridge,  while  the  neck  of  the  stick  was  of 
ebony,  inlaid  with  ivory,  and  of  a  cylindrical  form.  The  cords 
consisted  of  about  sixty  horse-hairs  attached  to  a  ring,  just 
below  the  sounding  body,  where  they  were  lengthened  with  a 
piece  of  lamb's  gut  (net  cat-gut),  attached  to  a  peg.  The  bow, 
about  the  same  length  as  the  instrument,  is  made  of  wood,  and 
strung  with  horse-hairs.  The  Arabs  also  have  a  stringed  in- 
strument something  like  a  dulcimer.  The  cords  of  this  instru- 
ment are  also  of  lamb's  gut,  three  strands  to  each  string,  and 
altogether  twenty-four  treble  cords.  The  strings  are  shorter 
at  one  side  of  the  instrument  than  at  the  other,  something  like 
the  strings  of  a  modem  piano.  This  instrum.ent  the  player  puts 
upon  his  knees  or  lap,  he  sitting  squat  upon  the  floor  and  play- 
ing the  instrument  with  two  plectra,  one  plectrum  upon  the  fore- 
finger of  each  hand.  The  plectra  were  thin  pieces  of  buffalo's 
horn  and  held  on  the  finger  by  a  ring  or  thimble.  Besides  these 
the  Arabs  have  a  kind  of  guitar  or  mandolin.  These  instru- 
ments have  seven  double  strings  (two  strands  to  each  string), 
and  they,  too,  are  of  lamb's  gut  and  not  cat-gut.  The  double 
cord  of  the  lowest  string  is  that  which  corresponds  to  the  highest 
cord  in  European  guitars.  Next  comes  one  of  a  fifth  above, 
then  the  seventh,  second,  fourth,  sixth,  and  third.  In  this  case 
the  plectrum  is  a  slip  of  the  vulture  or  some  other  bird's  feather. 
The  instrument  is  held  against  the  breast  and  played  not  unlike 
a  modem  mandolin  or  guitar  with  us. 

322.  Wind  Instruments. — There  are  various  kinds  of  wind 
instruments  common  among  Orientals — one  resembles  the  mod- 
em flute,  another  is  similar  to  a  clarinet.    Some  of  the  pipes  are 


222  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

made  to  produce  musical  sounds  by  blowing  through  a  very 
small  aperture  of  the  lips,  pressed  against  the  orifice  of  the  tube, 
so  that  the  wind  is  thrown  within  the  tube,  \vith  more  or  less 
force,  producing  sounds  an  ccta\  e  higher  or  low^er  at  the  will  of 
the  performer.  The  boatmen  of  the  Nile  have  a  kind  of 
double  reed  pipe.  One  of  the  reeds  is  much  longer  than  the 
other,  and  serves  as  a  continuous  bass.  These  pipes  produce 
harsh  sounds  resembling  the  sounds  of  a  bag-pipe.  There  is 
also  rarely  heard  a  sort  of  bag-pipe,  the  bag  being  made  of 
goat's  skin.  Whether  this  is  an  Oriental  idea  or  borrowed  is 
an  open  question.  Possibly  the  "organ  "  of  the  patriarchal  era 
was  the  bag-pipe.^ 

323.  0/  Percussion. — Of  the  musical  instruments  which  are 
beaten  with  sticks  there  are  a  great  many.  The  tambourine 
is  played  sometimes  with  the  hand  and  sometimes  with  some- 
thing attached  to  the  fingers.  The  kettle-drum  may  have  a 
parchment  face,  and  is  usually  beaten  with  two  slender  sticks. 
The  performer  may  carry  it  suspended  from  a  string  around  his 
neck  or,  if  large,  it  may  be  placed  upon  the  floor.  Besides  these 
there  are  cymbals,  castinets  of  copper,  of  brass,  plates  or  bars  of 
metal  of  different  lengths,  to  produce  sounds  of  different  pitch. 
The  Occidentals  are  familiar  with  the  musical  sounds  of  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  gongs. 

324.  Songs. — Lane  found  that  the  popular  songs  of  the 
peasants  in  Egypt  were  sung  with  a  distinct  enunciation  and 
a  quavering  voice.     Here  are  some  specimens: 

"  O  ye  beauties  !  fear  God, 
And  have  mercy  on  the  lover  for  the  sake  of  God. 
The  love  of  you  is  ordained  by  God  : 
The  Lord  hath  decreed  it  against  me." 


"  Every  night  long  my  moaning  ceaseth  not 
For  a  solitary  gazelle  that  hath  taken  away  my  soul. 
I  vow  that,  if  my  beloved  come, 
I  will  do  deeds  that  'An'tar  did  not." 

•  See  Gen.  4:21;  Job  21  :  12;  30  :  31;  Ps.  i.?o  ;  a- 


MUSIC   AND   MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS.  223 

"  A  lover  says  to  the  dove,  '  Lend  me  your  wings  for  a  day.' 
The  dove  replied,  'Thy  affair  is  vain':  I  said,  'Some  other  day 
Ihat  I  may  soar  through  the  sky,  and  see  the  face  of  the  beloved  : 
I  shall   obtain   love  enough  for  a  year,  and  will  return,  O  dove,  in 
a  day.' " 

"  The  night !  The  night  1  "    &c. 

Dr.  A.  A.  Bonar  and  R.  M.  McChejue  ^  tell  of  many  years 
ago,  when  crossing  the  desert,  the  drivers  being  weary,  proposed 
to  camp  for  the  night.  The  dragomen  desired  to  go  further. 
Upon  this  the  young  Arabs  proceeded  without  a  murmur,  and 
in  order  to  cheer  the  way  commenced  their  native  dance  and 
song.  One  of  them,  advancing  a  litde  before  the  rest,  began 
the  song,  dancing  forward  as  he  repeated  the  words;  when  the 
rest,  following  him  in  regular  order,  joined  in  the  chorus, 
keeping  time  by  simultaneous  clapping  of  hands.  They  sang 
several  Arab  songs  in  this  way,  responding  to  one  another, 
and  dancing  along  the  firm  sand  of  the  seashore  in  the  clear, 
beautiful  moonlight.  The  travelers  remark:  "The  response, 
the  dance,  and  the  clapping  of  hands  brought  many  parts  of 
the  Word  of  God  to  our  minds.  We  remember  the  song  of 
Miriam  at  the  Red  Sea,  when  the  women  went  out  after  her 
with  timbrels  and  with  dances,  and  Miriam  answered  them, 
that  is,  Miriam  sang  responsively  to  them."  ^  In  the  song  of 
David  before  Saul,  and  of  the  women  of  Israel  after  Da\'id's 
victory  over  Goliath,  the  women  answered  one  another  as  they 
played  and  said:  "Saul  hath  slain  his  thousands,  and  David 
his  ten  thousands."  ^  The  Psalmist  also  exclaimed,  "O 
clap  your  hands,  all  ye  people;  shout  unto  God  with  the  voice 
of  triumph."  In  another  Psalm  he  exclaims,  "Let  the  floods 
clap  their  hands:  let  the  hills  be  joyful  together,"  that  is,  as 
in  a  full  choir.     See  also  the  responsive  form  of  Psalm  136. 

325.  The  Ffo/.— Lieutenant  Lynch  also,  in  his  expedition, 
notes  the  sad  and  solemn  tone  of  the  music  produced  by  an 
Arab  bard  singing  sadly  to  the  sound  of  his  rebabeli,  a  kind 

'  Narrative  of  Mission  to  the  Jev.s,  p.  61  (Dr.  A.  A.  Bonar  and  Robt.  M.  McCheyne). 

*Ex.  15  :  20,  21. 

•  I  Sani.  16  :  23;   iS  :  6,  7;  compare  2  Kings  3  :  15  and  Is.  s  :  12. 


224  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

of  one  string  viol,  and  he  adds,  "the  music,  although  more 
varied  in  character  and  modulation,  was  essentially  the  same 
in  its  prevailing  sadness,  .  .  .  the  sound  of  tabret,  and  harp, 
of  sackbut  and  psaltery,  the  flute,  the  viol,  and  the  instru- 
ment of  two  strings  are  heard  no  more  in  the  land;  the '  rebabeh,' 
with  its  sighing  one  string,  befits  the  v/ildemess  and  the  wandering 
people  who  dwell  therein.  .  .  .  Not  even  the  Emir,  although 
he  threw  all  the  mirth  he  could  command  into  his  voice,  and 
touched  the  string  with  quite  elastic  fingers,  striking  out  notes 
and  half  notes  with  musical  precision,  his  dark  eyes  flashing 
and  his  white  teeth  glistening,  and  his  body  swaying  to  and 
fro,  nodding  his  head  to  the  music  of  his  minstrelsy,  as  if  to 
tiiumph  over  the  bard,  though  he  won  applause  with  every 
verse,  he  could  not  change  the  tone;  there  was  the  same  sad 
minor  running  through  the  song.  These  low  complaining  tones 
lingered  in  our  ears  long  after  the  sounds  had  ceased  and  the 
Arabs  were  gathered  in  sleep  around  the  smoldering  watch- 
fires."* 

»  Lynch's  Expedition,  p.  244. 


XXIX. 


ORIENTAL   WRITING. 


Oriental  writing  is  in  contrast,  and  almost  opposite,  to 
the  manner  prevailing  with  us.  Arabic  writing  runs  from 
the  right  hand  to  the  left,  and  most  of  the  people  of  Western 
Asia  write  after  a  similar  manner.  In  Eastern  Asia  the  lines  in 
writing  and  printing  are  often  vertical  rather  than  horizontal. 
The  signature  and  seal  are  usually  at  the  beginning,  and  not  at 
the  end,  as  with  us.  The  date  of  a  communication  or  docu- 
ment is  commonly  at  the  end,  not  at  the  beginning. 

326.  Public  Scribes.— M.os\ems  will  not  have  printed  copies 
of  the  Koran.  They  deem  it  a  desecration  of  the  name  of 
God  to  have  it  passed  under  the  press.  They  regard  printing 
as  introducing  and  perpetuating  errors.  Hence  the  Moslems 
employ  scribes  to  copy  their  sacred  book.  Public  writers 
of  letters  and  documents  are  a  necessity  among  a  people  where 
so  many  are  illiterate.  The  scribes  are  found  near  the  mosques 
and  courts,  as  Jewish  scribes  frequented  the  temple  courts 
and  the  synagogues  in  earlier  days.  Literary  men,  says  Mr. 
Haddad,  now  often  write  themselves,  or  have  a  copyist  re- 
write documents  in  a  better  form.  Such  copyists  or  scribes  are 
around  government  offices,  the  markets,  and  the  courts. 

327.  Samaritan  Law. — The  Samaritans  also  have  a  vmtten 
copy  of  their  sacred  book  of  the  law  of  Moses,  which  they 
guard  jealously.  Many  years  ago.  Dr.  Post  was  allowed  to 
enter  the  sanctuary  at  Nablus,  and  to  see  the  three  sacred 
copies.  The  most  sacred  of  the  three,  however,  was  then 
exhibited  unwillingly  and  hesitatingly,  for  fear  of  the  jealous 
feeling  of  the  sect.  Even  the  faithful  among  the  Samaritans 
were  not  allowed  to  look  upon  it  except  once  a  year,  and  then 
only  in  the  hands  of  their  high  priest.  The  Moslems  are  not 
allowed    to    touch    the    Koran    with    unwashed  hands.     In 

15  225 


226  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

more  recent  times  they  have  become  apparently  less  cautious. 
The  Samaritan  Bible,  that  is,  the  five  books  of  Moses,  written 
on  gazelle-skin  parchment,  is  kept  in  a  costly  case,  with  a  cover 
of  green  Venetian  fabric,  within  the  Samaritan  synagogue  at 
Nablus.  It  is  an  inferior  parchment  that  is  now  so  readily 
shown  by  the  rabbis  to  visitors  on  application  and  payment  of 
a  small  sum. 

32S.  Seals. — Every  Oriental  document  is  attested  by  a  seal. 
Such  seals  are  universal  in  the  East.  The  seals  may  be  of 
brass,  engraved  with  the  name  or  monogram  of  the  owner,  a 
little  scroll  work,  the  seal  being  tied  by  a  string,  or  worn  on  the 
finger  as  a  ring.  To  make  the  seal  impression,  the  finger  is 
smeared  with  ink,  rubbed  over  the  face  of  the  seal,  and  the 
paper  is  pressed  between  the  seal  and  the  forefinger.  Sealing- 
wax  was  rarely  used. 

Dr.  Edward  Robinson  relates  how,  after  a  long  talk,  and 
much  clamor,  he  agreed  with  Sheikh  Beshara  to  furnish  his 
party  with  dromedaries  and  camels.  The  contract  was  at 
once  written  by  a  scribe,  upon  his  knee,  and  signed  and  sealed 
in  a  very  primitive  manner.  Arabs  of  the  towns  usually  had 
a  signet  ring  to  serve  as  a  signature.  But  Bushara  had  none, 
so  he  held  up  one  of  his  fingers,  the  point  of  which  was  daubed 
with  ink,  and  he  then  gravely  impressed  it  upon  the  paper, 
which  to  him  was  as  binding  an  act  as  if  he  had  sealed  it  with 
a  gold  or  jeweled  seal.  Dr.  Perkins  records  similar  customs 
of  scribes  in  Persia,  as  Harmer  does  also  in  Barbary,  Lane  in 
Egypt,  and  Malcolm  in  Southern  Asia.  Lane  tells  us  that 
regular  scribes  wore  a  silver,  brass,  or  copper  case,  with  recep- 
tacles for  ink  and  pens  stuck  in  the  girdle.  The  prophet  Ezekiel 
had  a  vision  of  a  man  in  linen  clothes,  with  a  writer's  ink  horn 
by  his  side.^  Dr.  Perkins  says  the  profession  of  scribes  was 
an  extensive  one  in  Persia.  The  higher  classes  avoid  the 
drudgery  of  the  pen,  and  peasants  are  too  ignorant  to  do  their 
own  writing.  The  lower  class  of  Persian  merchants  usually 
keep  their  own  accounts,  write  their  owti  letters,  and  use  their 
>  Ezek.  9  ;  1-4. 


ORIENTAL  WRITING.  227 

ov/n  seal.  The  chief  merchants  carry  on  their  business  in 
cipher-characters,  like  government  cipher-despatches,  every 
one  having  his  own  cipher-alphabet.  At  that  time  there  were  no 
regular  mails  in  Persia,  and  letters  were  entrusted  to  couriers, 
who  might  be  bribed  to  betray  the  secrets  of  the  letters  to 
commercial  rivals,  hence  they  would  avoid  writing  in  the 
current  language. 

329.  Traditions — How  Kept. — The  Orientals  partially  over- 
came the  apparent  inconvenience  of  keeping  records  by  com- 
mitting things  to  memory.  Mr.  Haddad  tells  that  when 
writers  are  or  were  comparatively  few,  people  were  obliged 
to  commit  things  to  memor>',  such  as  sapngs  of  the  wise, 
historic  facts,  and  business  matters.  It  came  to  pass  that  a 
certain  class  made  a  profession  of  doing  this,  and  of  handing 
down  the  facts  from  generation  to  generation.  This  class 
became  permanent  witnesses,  and  were,  therefore,  required  to 
be  honest,  veracious,  and  trustworthy,  so  that  the  things 
committed  by  and  to  them  would  agree  in  the  main  with  those 
reported  by  others  of  a  like  class.  In  modem  times  in  Turkey, 
three  groups  or  divisions  of  persons  of  this  kind  are  said  to 
exist.  These  hold  in  memory  and  recite  written  and  unwritten 
matters.  First,  those  who  commit  to  memory  religious  books 
and  matters  among  Moslems,  Jews,  and  Christians.  They 
can  recite  whole  books  from  beginning  to  end,  often  without 
a  mistake  in  a  word.  Second,  those  who  recite  the  sayings  of 
Mohammed,  not  recorded  in  the  Koran.  Third,  those  who 
recite  history  and  noted  poems. 

330.  Records. — Records  and  documents  of  importance  are 
often  lost  and  found  in  after  years.  Mr.  Haddad  reports  that 
a  noble  Syrian  family  had  inherited  an  estate  hundreds  of  years 
ago.  The  products  of  the  estate  were  to  be  shared  among  the 
descendants,  but  the  property  could  never  be  sold.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  family  who  knew  the  provisions  of  the  will  passed 
away,  the  document  was  lost,  and  the  descendants  fell  to  quar- 
reling over  the  division  of  the  income.  Lawyers  and  judges 
were  consulted,  and  their  fees  absorbed  the  chief  portion  of  the 


228  ORIENTALISMS   IN    BIBLE    LANDS. 

inheritance.  Finally,  the  old  public  record  hall  fell  into 
decay,  and  to  rebuild  it,  the  documents  and  papers  were  removed 
from  the  closets,  where  they  had  been  piled  together  for  hun- 
dreds of  years.  They  were  not  arranged  in  any  systematic  order, 
so  a  document  could  be  easily  lost.  In  sorting  over  the  old 
documents,  by  chance,  a  book  with  a  copy  of  the  lost  will  was 
found  and  reported  to  this  Syrian  family.  All  agreed  that  the 
document  was  genuine  and  not  a  forged  one.  The  paper,  style 
of  writing,  and  other  proofs  showed  that  it  was  genuine,  since 
a  fraudulent  record  could  not  have  stood  the  tests  appHed. 
This  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the  account  of  the  lost  book  of 
the  law,  which  was  found  in  the  temple  among  the  piles  of 
documents  and  was  read  to  Josiah  the  king,  and  recognized  as 
the  law  of  Moses.^ 

331.  Books. — The  Oriental  book  was  a  roll,  such  as  the 
Samaritan  law  is  written  upon,  and  it  could  be  easily  written 
on  both  sides.  Writing  on  the  back  of  a  book  of  the  modem 
form  would  have  no  meaning.  Hartley  saw  two  rolls  written 
on  both  sides  in  a  Greek  monastery.  Dr.  Buchanan  found  an 
old  copy  of  the  law  in  India,  woitten  on  a  roll  of  leather  about 
fifteen  feet  long.  These  rolls  are  wound  on  wooden  axes,  and 
often  enclosed  in  a  sUver  or  copper  gilt  cyHnder,  which  opened 
at  the  side.  On  feast  days,  these  rolls  were  carried  in  solemn 
procession.     Such  rolls  are  often  alluded  to  in  Scriptures.^ 

332.  Letters. — An  Oriental  letter  is  written  with  a  long  reed 
pen.^  This  pen  is  carried  in  a  tube.  A  large  piece  of  paper  is 
required  for  a  letter  in  good  form.  The  letter  has  the  seal  or 
signature  at  the  top.  They  begin  to  write  from  the  right  hand 
side  of  the  page.  The  opening  sentence  is  a  flowery  and  com- 
plimentary introduction,  in  high-sounding  words,  seasoned 
with  extravagant  and  fulsome  phrases  and  pretensions  of  love, 
no  matter  whether  to  a  friend  or  an  enemy.  Usually,  as  Dr. 
Thomson  observes,  this  rigmarole  has  no  meaning,  or  is  an 
egregious  lie,  a  mere  formality.     Following  this  usually  there 

•  See  2  Kintis  22  :  8-23  :  3;  2  Chron.  34  :  14  ff. 

'  See  Jer.  36  :  2,  21;  Ezek.  2  :  9,  10;  Zech.  5  :  1-3;  Rev.  6  :  14;  2  Tim.  4  :  13. 

»  Judg.  s  :  14;  3  John  i3- 


ORIENTAL   WRITING.  229 

is  an  epitome  of  the  communication,  which  is  to  be  answered, 
often  repeating  it  word  for  word.  Examples  of  this  form  are 
common  in  the  Bible.  The  letter  is  dated  at  the  bottom,  but 
often  no  place  is  mentioned,  and  no  address  given.  Thus, 
the  mother  of  a  servant  girl  wanted  two  wooden  bowls,  and  a 
small  Hungarian  trunk  sent  to  her  from  Jaffa  to  Bethlehem. 
The  girl  was  in  Jaffa.  The  letter  to  her,  from  the  mother  in 
Bethlehem  ran  thus: 

"To  the  most  honoured  and  excellent  lady,  the  respected  Catherina; 
God  liveth  and  endureth  for  ever.     Amen! 

"After  ha\'ing  settled  on  the  principal  question,  that  is,  your  dear  health 
and  security,  which  is  with  us  the  essential  cause  of  writing,  and  the 
occasion  of  our  prayers;  firstly,  if  your  question  about  us  be  admitted, 
^rg  are, — God  be  praised, — in  perfect  happiness,  and  do  nothing  but  ask 
about  you  and  the  security  of  your  health,  which  is  with  us  the  essential 
cause  of  writing,  and  the  occasion  of  prayer."  [After  several  sentences, 
referring  to  health  again  and  that  of  the  members  of  the  family,  comes  the 
real  request.]  "Send  us  two  wooden  bowls,  without  mistake,  by  the  kind 
camel  driver,— my  contentment  rest  on  you."  [Salutations  are  then  sent 
to  several  of  the  family,  and  then  the  second  request.]  "Send  him  [your 
brother]  a  Hungarian^runk,  like  the  trunk  of  Tufaha,  the  daughter  of 
your  uncle,  Jirius.  For  its  price  is  from  us,  and  when  you  will  face  us 
we  will  repay  you  its  price.  What  we  now  want  we  have  told  you,  and 
if  you  want  anything  tell  us.  God  liveth  and  endureth!"  [Thenfol- 
lows  four  special  sentences  of  commendations  and  salutations  from  various 
members  of  the  family,  which  close  the  letter.] 

This  letter  would  require  two  pages  of  vmting. 

333.  How  Written.— Th^  paper  Dr.  Van  Lennep  used  in  the 
East  was  thick,  in  large  sheets,  and  polished  by  rubbing.  It  is 
not  ruled  with  a  ruler  and  pencil,  but  by  successive  foldings, 
a  margin  being  left  at  the  right  side  of  the  page,  and  a  line,  slant- 
ing somewhat  upward  toward  the  left,  unless  the  sheet  is  written 
on  both  sides,  then  the  lines  are  written  straight.  The  paper 
is  held  in  the  left  hand,  which  rests  upon  the  right  knee  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  pressure  of  the  reed  on  the  paper  is  sustained 
by  the  two  fingers  of  that  hand.  The  Oriental  never  rests  his 
paper  while  writing  upon  a  desk  or  table.  He  is  independent 
of  m.echanical  contrivances,  to  which  the  Occidental  has  become 
a  slave. 


230  ORIENTALISMS   EN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

As  before  stated,  the  signature  of  a  letter  or  document  is  not 
written,  but  stamped  with  a  seal.  State  documents  have  the 
name  and  titles  of  the  sovereign  inscribed  at  the  top  in  a  peculiar 
style,  called  tourah,  or  imperial  cipher.  These  are  stamped 
with  an  official  seal,  as  described  above.  If  special  impor- 
tance and  weight  are  attached  to  the  document,  it  is  sometimes 
sealed  or  marked  with  blood,  or  burned  at  the  four  comers.' 
See  references  to  seals  on  letters  and  orders.^ 

Formerly,  letters  were  folded,  and  put  up  in  envelopes  opened 
lengthwise,  to  receive  their  contents  at  one  end,  and  were 
closed  vdth  two  seals.  The  address  was  written  across  (not 
lengthwise  of)  the  envelope.  The  messenger  usually  carries 
such  a  letter  on  his  head,  between  the  cap  and  its  lining,  hence 
the  Oriental  proverb,  "Upon  my  head." 

334.  Reed  Pens,  etc. — How  \videspread  and  uniform  the 
general  type  of  Oriental  writing  was  is  shown  by  what  Lane 
tells  us  he  saw  nearly  a  century  ago  in  Eg}'pt.  The  ink  used 
there  was  thick  and  gummy.  The  scribes  WTote  with  reeds, 
not  with  quill  pens,  as  Arabic  characters,  like  most  of  the  char- 
acters in  Oriental  languages,  cannot  be  easily  made  with  quills 
or  metal  pens.  The  paper  was  thick  and  glazed.  Scissors 
were  a  necessary  part  of  the  apparatus  of  a  writer,  to  trim  the 
edges  of  the  paper,  since  torn  edges  were  considered  in  bad  taste. 
The  Egyptian  places  his  paper  on  his  knee,  or  on  the  palm  of 
his  left  hand,  rarely  upon  a  kind  of  pad.  He  rules  his  paper  by 
laying  under  it  a  piece  of  pasteboard,  with  strings  stretched 
and  glued  across  it,  and  slightly  pressing  the  paper  over  each 
string.  The  Oriental  ink-horn  and  reed  pen  of  later  times  are 
close  patterns  to  those  in  use  thousands  of  years  ago. 

About  half  a  century  ago,  foremost  biblical  critics  were  posi- 
tive that  Moses  could  not  have  wTitten  any  part  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, because  they  declared  that  the  art  of  writing  was  then 
unknovra.  This  assumption  is  now  exploded  and  laughed  at. 
For  writing  has  been  found  in  Egypt  of  earlier  date  than  the 

'See  Churchill,  "Lebanon,"  vol.  iv,  p.  150. 

*  I  KinKS  21  :  8;  Esther  8  :  8,  10;  Job  14  :  17;  Is.  8  :  16;  29  :  11;  Jer.  32  :  14,  44;  Ezek. 
s8  :  12;  Dun.  9  :  24;   12  :  4, 9;  Rev.  22  :  10. 


ORIENTAL  WRITING.  23 1 

time  of  Abraham,  and  extending  through  the  reigns  of  all  the 
Pharaohs.  Cuneiform  writing  in  Babylonia  has  also  been 
brought  to  light,  probably  more  than  a  thousand  years  older  than 
the  age  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs.  The  bundles  of  letters  found 
at  Tel-el-Amama  indicate  how  widespread  was  the  knowledge 
of  writing  before  the  days  of  Moses.  Dr.  GrifEs  also  tells  of 
an  interesting  discovery  that  at  the  earliest  introduction  of 
writing  into  Japan,  men  devoted  their  studies  to  the  Chinese 
language,  and  left  their  own  language  to  be  cultivated  by  women. 
It  is  said  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  best  writings  in  the  past 
age  of  Japanese  literature  is  the  work  of  women.^ 

*  Mikado's  Empire,  p.  213. 


XXX. 

BUYING  AND   SELLING — SHOPS,   BAZAARS. 

Nomads  and  primitive  races  have  no  commerce  and  no  shops. 
Yet  they  trade,  by  barter  and  exchange,  in  rude  and  simple 
ways.  Among  more  settled  tribes  in  an  Oriental  village  the 
first  shop  started  is  usually  a  bakkal,  grocer's  stall,  who  sells 
bread,  cheese,  olives,  salt  and  dried  fish,  wood,  iron,  and 
earthenware  utensils  for  the  passing  traveler.  Sometimes 
the  village  \vill  have  a  haddad,  blacksmith,  a  coffee  house,  a 
baker,  a  cobbler,  or  a  butcher. 

335.  Shops. — Oriental  shops  are  all  after  a  similar  pattern — 
the  workshop  and  the  place  to  store  goods  usually  being  in 
the  same  room  or  building.  Dr.  Van  Lennep,  out  of  his  long 
observation,  describes  one  of  these  places.  On  the  street  is 
a  platform,  about  two  feet  high,  and  along  the  whole  front 
of  the  shop.  A  small  door  opens  to  a  room  back,  the  goods 
and  best  articles  are  displayed  in  front,  as  they  are  now  in  the 
windows  of  our  great  department  stores.  On  the  platform 
is  a  sejadeh,  or  rug,  or  thin  mat.  Upon  this  the  keeper  sits 
cross-legged.  He  keeps  himself  busy  with  his  accounts,  or 
displaying  his  goods,  keen  to  address  passersby,  inviting  them 
to  look  at  the  special  beauty  of  his  articles. 

Buyers  and  sellers  meet  in  the  Oriental  \illage  "m.arket," 
on  a  chief  street.  Shop  and  store-rooms  line  this  street,  which 
the  Arabs  call  si'tk}  Here  the  peasant  is  found,  with  his 
animals  ladened  with  food-stuffs  and  his  country  produce. 
The  gardener  is  there  with  his  small  fruits.  All  the  shop- 
keepers are  on  or  near  this  market  street  or  center.  Prof. 
Elihu  Grant  tells  us  an  Oriental  shop  in  a  Syrian  village  is  a 
small  room,  six  to  twelve  feet  square,  has  a  door,  but  rarely  a 
window,  a  counter,  or  bench,  and  shelves  and  bins  along  the 

1  Matt  ao  :  3. 
232 


At  the  City  Gate,  Jerusalem. 

BUILDING   ON    THE    LEFT    IS   TOWER    OF    DAVID. 

(Vcster  &  Co.) 


BUYING   AKD   SELLING — SHOPS.    BAZAARS.  233 

walls,  where  sugar,  flour,  oil,  matches,  candies,  spice,  starch, 
coflfee,  rice,  and  dried  figs— but  no  wrapping  paper— may  be 
found.  For  liquids,  the  buyer  brings  his  own  dish;  his  other 
purchases  he  carries  away  in  the  ample  folds  of  his  skirt  or  in 
a  handkerchief. 

336.  Buying. — Oriental  buyers  and  sellers  are  alike  keen 
at  bargains.  They  haggle  over  prices  with  great  heat.  They 
cool,  then  are  swept  into  a  frenzy  of  strife;  again  they  grow 
calm,  but  the  haggling  and  controversy  and  argument  begin 
over  again,  becoming  more  heated  than  before,  and  so  excited 
as  to  appear  soon  to  come  to  blows.  At  last,  however,  they  find 
a  common  basis,  and  the  sale  is  made  with  flattering  compli- 
ments to  one  another,  and  to  the  rapturous  dehght  of  both 
parties. 

This  "striking  a  bargain  "  is  a  tedious  process  to  the  stranger. 
The  native  Oriental  takes  pleasure  in  the  exercise,  and  sees 
great  possibilities  before  him.  He  assures  you  the  bargain 
shall  be  just  as  you  like,  wholly.  Is  he  not  a  servant  of  God  ? 
He  cares  not  for  money,  but  for  your  good-will  and  happiness. 
That  is  the  sweetest  thing  of  hfe,  the  love  and  favor  of  brothers. 
You  offer  a  price,  and  he  says,  "What  is  such  a  trifle  as  that 
between  us?  Take  it  for  nothing."  But  he  does  not  tnean 
a  word  of  it.  A  native  once  ofi'ered  a  young  gazelle  found  in 
the  wilderness  to  Prof.  Grant.  He  said  it  was  a  "present." 
The  professor  offered  him  forty  cents  for  it;  he  promptly 
demanded  sixty. 

337.  Bazaars. — The  shops  or  bazaars  in  some  Oriental 
villages  are  found  in  clusters.  Each  group  of  shops  in  the 
si7k,  agora,  or  market,  has  a  supply  of  special  articles  or  neces- 
saries of  Hfe,  belonging  to  similar  classes.  Thus,  every  con- 
siderable Turkish  town,  says  Van  Lennep,  has  a  bazaar  or 
hezesten,  a.  sort  of  arcade:  a  stone  structure,  open  at  both 
ends,  a  narrow  alley  or  street  running  through  it,  covered 
with  an  arched  roof,  the  sides  pierced  with  openings  or  windows. 
This  covered  street  on  both  sides  is  lined  with  shops,  narrow 
and   shallow.     Dealers  in    similar   goods   and   articles   flock 


234  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

together  here,  as  do  the  artisans  of  like  trades  in  Oriental 
cities.  Such  shops  can  yet  be  seen  in  Constantinople,  Damas- 
cus, Cairo,  and  Bagdad.  In  ancient  days  they  were  in  Jeru- 
salem, Babylon,  and  Noph.^ 

338.  Markets. — In  inland  towns  and  cities  the  markets  and 
market-places  are  often  in  the  open  air  as  well  as  under  cover. 
Great  bazaars  or  fairs  are  held  on  certain  days  of  the  week. 
Several  towns  or  villages  each  select  a  different  day  for  the 
bazaar  or  market,  offering  at  such  times  everything  for  sale; 
catde,  sheep,  horses,  mules,  chickens,  butter,  eggs,  vegetables, 
fruit,  jewelry,  garments,  as  if  the  whole  tovm  were  for  the  day 
turned  into  a  fair  or  exhibition,  where  everything  was  for  sale. 
The  day  thus  appointed  is  often  a  Sunday,  or  a  Friday,  the 
Moslem  Sunday,  since  these  are  hohdays  in  Turkey.  On 
such  days,  peasants  and  people  come  together  in  larger  num- 
bers than  on  other  days.^  The  Oriental  "bargain  counter" 
has  been  described  in  the  section  on  Trades. 

339.  Credit. — The  shopkeeper  does  not  always  get  cash 
from  the  native  buyer.  Indeed,  as  Prof.  Post  tells  us,  debt  is 
almost  universal  in  Syria.  The  peasant  sows  borrowed  seed, 
on  borrowed  land,  plants  and  reaps  with  borrowed  tools,  and 
lives  in  a  borrowed  house.  In  an  abundant  harvest  even, 
the  amount  of  the  crop  left  by  the  tax-gatherer  barely  pays 
the  debt  accumulated  in  making  and  gathering  the  crop. 
When  the  buyer  pays  cash  for  his  purchases,  after  a  true 
Oriental  manner,  his  payment  is  in  coin,  or  rings  of  copper, 
silver,  or  gold,  such  as  are  now  common  in  China.  In  biblical 
times  we  find  allusions  to  this  kind  of  payments.  See  Ezra  2: 
69,  where  the  term  adarkonim  signifies  Persian  coins,  similar 
to  the  Greek  darks.  The  Persians  are  said  to  have  got  the 
idea  of  coining  from  Lydia,  at  the  capture  of  Sardis,  564  B.  C. 
Earlier  Lydian  coins  were  of  electrum,  but  Crcesus  changed 
this  to  coins  of  gold  and  silver,  probably  about  568  B.  C. 
Examples  of  these  coins  are  now  known.  This  throws  light 
on  the  passage  in  Gen.  43:  21,  where  the  rings  were  weighed; 

•  See  Ezek.  27  :  13-24.  -  See  Neh.  13  :  15-22. 


BUYING   AND   SELLING — SHOPS,   BAZAARS.  23$ 

the  phrase  hterally  meaning  "bundles"  or  "strings  of  money." 
So  in  the  record  of  2  Kings  22  :  9,  where  the  scribe  reported  to 
the  king  that  the  servants  had  "melted"  [gathered]  the  money. 

340.  llie  Cafe. — The  Palestine  Exploration  reports  the  com- 
mon method  of  shopkeeping  peculiar  to  Syria  and  Palestine. 
The  grocer,  called  samman,  keeps  all  kinds  of  dry  fruits,  and 
olive  oil,  while  the  perfumer,  on  the  perfumers'  street,  has 
all  kinds  of  spices,  usually  in  a  very  small  room,  so  small 
that  the  perfumer  can  reach  almost  any  of  his  articles  without 
getting  up  from  his  seat.  In  fact,  many  of  his  goods  are 
stowed  under  his  seat,  such  as  cinnamon,  pepper,  and  spices. 
These  are  in  littie  oval  boxes,  with  a  label  in  Arabic  marking 
the  contents  of  the  box. 

The  cafe  is  usually  at  the  comer  of  some  street,  and  is  the 
meeting  place  of  all  strangers  and  natives  when  they  have 
finished  their  business.  Everybody  is  here,  friend  and  foe, 
so  that  the  cafe  is  the  institution  of  the  Oriental  tovm.  Some 
are  to  be  found  near  the  gates,  where  is  also  the  khan,  for 
travelers  to  leave  their  animals,  while  the  owners  go  about 
the  town  doing  their  business.  When  a  customer  stops  at  any 
of  the  shops  and  is  shown  what  he  calls  for,  he  is  quite  often 
offered  coffee  and  a  pipe,  nargJiileh  ("smoking  bottle"),  from 
the  nearby  cafe,  where  men  resort,  but  no  women  are  admitted, 
because  it  is  a  kind  of  bourse,  or  place  for  discussing  the 
markets  and  sales.  Hence,  the  Eastern  cafe  is  a  wide-spread 
institution,  found  everywhere  in  the  Orient. 

341.  Women  Shoppers. — Formerly  women  of  high  class  in  the 
Orient  remained  at  home;  they  rarely  went  out  shopping.  This 
led  to  a  peculiar  class  of  women-sellers  and  buyers,  who  went 
from  house  to  house,  making  sales,  and  acting  as  intermediaries 
or  merchandise  brokers.  Prof.  Post  found  this  class  very 
common  when  he  first  went  to  Syria.  The  custom  is  gradually 
giving  way  now,  and  many  women  do  their  own  buying  and 
selling,  due  to  the  invasion  of  Western  customs. 

342.  Silos. — The  Arabian  peasant  brings  his  grain  from  the 
various  places  of  concealment,  for  he  is  compelled  to  hide  his 


236  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

wheat  and  other  grains,  lest  the  marauding  tribes  of  Bedouins 
or  the  tax-gatherer,  whom  he  fears,  may  plunder  him.  Arab 
tribes  are  said  to  possess  large  hordes  of  wheat  and  other  grain 
concealed  in  what  are  called  silos,  which  Tristram  tells  us  are 
underground  pits,  eight  feet  deep,  carefully  cemented,  and  bottle 
shaped,  v/ith  a  narrow  neck,  large  enough  to  admit  a  man. 
They  are  plastered  with  cement,  and  the  ground  leveled  over 
them  to  prevent  discover}',  and  the  secret  is  only  known  to  the 
owner.  It  may  have  been  to  such  silos  that  the  ten  men  referred 
when  they  said  to  Gedaliah,  "Slay  us  not:  for  we  have  treasures 
in  the  field,  of  wheat,  and  of  barley,  and  of  oil,  and  of  honey." ' 
These  silos  are  carefully  guarded,  but  left  unvisited  or  un- 
opened for  months,  lest  some  one  should  discover  and  plunder 
them.^     (See  Storehouses.) 

343.  Shops  in  Clusters. — As  further  proof  that  the  shops 
and  bazaars  are  usually  in  clusters  in  Oriental  cities,  Dr. 
Griffis  tells  us  of  streets  in  Japan  lined  with  open  shops. 
The  chief  occupation  of  the  shopkeepers  seemed  to  him  to  be 
toasting  their  fingers.  One  shop  was  full  of  ivor}^  carvings, 
some  of  them  elegant  works  of  art,  real  puns  in  ivory,  and  some 
were  historical  tableaux.  In  Tokio  he  found  one  street  devoted 
to  bureaus  and  cabinets;  another  was  full  of  folding  screens, 
yet  another  street  was  filled  with  dyers'  shops,  with  their  odors 
and  vats.  In  still  another  street  nothing  was  on  sale  but 
bamboo  poles,  and  "enough  of  those  to  make  a  forest."  The 
Oriental  habit  of  like  shops  and  like  trades  clustering  together 
is  typical  in  Japan.  There  are  many  passages  of  Scripture  that 
require  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  in  Oriental  life  to  become  in- 
telligible to  Western  readers. 

344.  Some  Odd  Customs. — Again,  of  the  reverse  way  the  Ori- 
ental does  everything,  Japan  is  a  conspicuous  example.  As 
elsewhere  in  the  Orient,  the  bamboo  worker  saws  the  cane  by 
pulling  the  saw  toward  him  instead  of  pushing  it  from  him  as 
we  do.  The  carpenter  pulls  his  plane  toward  him;  the  black- 
smith works  his  bellows  with  his  foot,  while  he  holds  and  ham- 

'  Jer.  41  :  8.  '  Eastern  Custcaos.  Tristram,  p.  951. 


BUYING   AND   SELLING — SHOPS,    BAZAARS.  237 

mers  his  iron  uith  both  hands.  The  cooper  holds  his  tubs  with 
his  toes,  and  all  the  workers  sit  while  they  work,  as  do  shopkeep- 
ers also.  Why  do  they  do  things  contrariwise  to  us?  Are  we 
upside  down,  or  are  they?  The  Oriental  says  we  are.  They 
call  us  "crab-writers,"  because  to  them  our  writing  goes  back- 
ward on  the  page;  our  printing  is  "crawfish"  work,  because  it 
goes  across  the  page  from  left  to  right,  and  not  right  to  left,  or 
downward  properly,  as  their  writing  does.  Even  Japanese 
screws  turn  the  other  way  from  ours,  and  their  locks  turn  to  the 
left,  when  ours  turn  to  the  right.  Are  the  Orientals  or  we 
turned  the  wrong  way  about? 

The  custom  of  having  shops  in  clusters  or  groups.  Dr.  D.  O. 
Allen  says,  prevails  in  India.  The  small  villages  in  his  day  had 
a  few  shops  for  the  sale  of  grain,  tobacco,  coarse  cloths,  and  the 
like,  while  larger  villages  had  appointed  market-days,  or  fairs, 
after  Oriental  custom,  to  which  traveling  traders  and  people 
from  hamlets  resort.  Streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  few  being 
wide  enough  for  carriages  to  pass.  Merchants  and  bankers  are 
on  the  principal  street  of  large  towns  and  cities,  or  about  a  pub- 
lic square.  They  sit  cross-legged,  on  a  carpeted  bench,  or  on  a 
floor  raised  about  two  feet  above  the  ground,  and  covered  with 
a  rug.  They  are  very  courteous,  lending  money  to  small  traders, 
and  advancing  it  to  farmers  on  their  harvest  crops  as  security. 

345.  Fairs. — Similar  fairs  are  described  by  travelers  in 
Africa,  and  are  usually  held  outside  the  towns,  in  front  of  their 
principal  gate.  Slaves,  sheep,  bullocks,  and  live  stock  in  great 
numbers  were  for  sale,  with  wheat,  rice,  tamarinds  in  pods, 
groundnuts,  ban  beans,  and  indigo.  Leather  was  offered  in 
great  quantities,  skins  of  a  large  snake,  and  pieces  of  crocodile 
skin  as  ornaments,  for  the  scabbards  of  daggers,  were  also  on 
sale. 

Morier  attended  similar  fairs  in  Persia,  where  were  also 
gathered  sellers  of  all  sorts  of  goods  in  temporary  shops  or  tents, 
such  as  the  sellers  of  barley  and  flour,  at  the  gate  of  Samaria 
after  the  famine.*     Layard  noticed  little  shops  for  the  sale 

■  See  2  Kings  7. 


238  ORIENTALISMS   ESf   BIBLE  LANDS. 

of  wheat,  barley,  bread,  and  other  breadstuffs  at  the  gate  of 
the  modern  town  of  Mosul,  opposite  the  site  of  old  Nineveh. 
It  was  "at  the  gate"  that  Boaz  called  the  elders  and  people 
to  witness  that  he  had  bought  all  that  was  Elimelech's.^  Al- 
lusions to  trading  and  traders  of  a  similar  kind  may  be  found 
in  Job  5  -.4;  Prov.  31  :  23;  Ps.  127  :  5;  and  Lam.  5  :  14,  as 
also  at  an  earlier  period  in  Gen.  23  :  10,  18;  2  Chron.  18  : 9. 

I  Ruth  4  :  1-3. 


Selling  Fish,  Galilee  Lake. 

(Copyright  by  Under-iuood  &•  U nderwood ,  New  York.) 


Measuring  Grain — Full  Measure. 

(Vesler  Cr  Co.) 


V.   2  52 


XXXI. 


ORIENTAL  DWELLINGS, 


From  time  immemorial,  primitive  peoples  have  been  grouped 
into  two  classes — those  having  temporary  and  movable,  and 
those  having  permanent  dwellings,  tents,  and  caves.  This 
division  is  recognized  in  the  early  Genesis  narrative.  Thus, 
Jabal  is  called  "the  father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents  and  have 
cattle,"  and  "  Cain  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground,"  and  "he  builded 
a  city."  ^ 

346.  Cave  Dwellers. — Whether  prehistoric  man  dwelt  in 
dens,  caves,  or  cliffs  is  a  question  which  lies  beyond  the  scope 
of  this  work.  Natural  caves  and  rocky  and  cliff-dens  exist 
in  great  numbers  throughout  all  Western  Asia.  Many  of  them 
bear  evidences  of  having  been  occupied  by  man  at  different 
periods.  Tyrv/hitt  Drake  tells  us  of  Syrian  troglodytes,  who 
inhabit  old  caves  with  their  cows,  sheep,  and  goats.  The  walls 
of  these  caves  are  seldom  smoothed,  are  circular  or  oval,  and 
rarely  six  feet  in  height.  The  center  is  occupied  by  the  cattle, 
the  portion  reserved  by  the  human  part  of  the  community  is 
marked  off  by  a  line  of  stones  or  a  slightly  raised  narrow  dais. 
The  state  of  the  cave  after  a  heavy  dowoipour  of  rain,  added  to 
the  general  uncleanliness,  the  slimy  damp  of  the  walls,  the 
mosquitoes,  the  vermin,  the  reek  of  men  and  beasts,  make  an 
ordinary  pigsty  a  palace  in  comparison.  The  indolent,  able- 
bodied  rascals,  dignified  by  the  title  of  reasonable  beings,  who 
own  this  byre,  are  too  lazy  to  build  themselves  huts.  The  cave 
dwellers,  Mr.  Drake  says,  are  sunk  but  litde  lower  than  their 
house-sheltered  brethren. 

347.  Rock  Refuge. — Van  Lennep  tells  us  of  shepherds  who 
stable  their  flocks  in  these  caves  of  Western  Asia,  and  people 
oppressed  by  tyranny  and  war  forsake  villages  and  dwell  for  a 

'  Gen.  4:2,  17,  20. 

239 


240  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

time  in  these  wild  and  inaccessible  places  to  escape  from  their 
oppressors.  Bandits  and  outiaws  make  these  caverns  their 
abode,  as  in  olden  time,  and  from  these  they  sally  forth  to  com- 
mit robbery  and  murder.  David  and  his  outlaws  escaped  from 
Saul  and  dwelt  in  the  cave  of  AduUam,  whither  he  gathered 
malcontents  of  every  sort.^  Extensive  habitations  of  this  kind 
arc  still  found  east  of  the  Jordan  and  in  Arabia.  Porter  de- 
scribes with  much  swelling  rhetoric  the  giant  cities  of  Bashan- 
land,  and  the  wonderful  cliff  city  of  Petra  is  attractmg  troops  of 
tourists  in  our  day.  Similar  extensive  rock  excavations,  with 
apartments  and  rooms,  may  be  found  in  Lycia,  on  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  Persian  town  of  Sherazul,  near  where 
Alexander  gained  his  victory  over  Darius,  is  also  largely  dug  out 
of  rock.-  Similar  caves  exist  in  various  parts  of  Palestine,  bear- 
ing evidences  of  having  once  been  dwelling-places  of  man,  thus 
confirming  references  thereto  in  the  Scriptures.^ 

348.  Nomads. — These  cave  dwellers  led  a  nomad  life,  and 
many  of  them  are  still  found  in  the  East,  following  much  the 
same  kind  of  life  that  their  ancestors  did,  six  thousand  or  eight 
thousand  years  ago.  A  large  class  of  Arabs  of  the  desert,  widely 
known  as  Bedouins,  dwell  either  in  caves  or  in  tents,  and 
roam  over  wide  areas.  The  other  class  of  peasants,  or  fellahin, 
dwell  in  huts  and  hamlets,  and  abodes  that  are  a  step  toward  a 
more  permanent  type  of  dwelling,  but  scarcely  possess  more 
comforts  than  the  cave  dwellers  themselves.  Drake  describes 
these  fellahin  as  living  in  miserable  huts,  dark,  dirty,  and 
comfortless.  In  the  mountains  they  are  built  of  mud  and  stone, 
generally  roofed  with  beams  of  rough  timber,  on  which  bushes 
and  a  couple  of  feet  of  soil  are  laid.  Roofs  require  careful 
rolling  before  rains,  or  the  water  sinks  in,  and  causes  them  to 
collapse.  A  few  pans  and  jars  for  cooking,  a  few  rush  mats, 
or  if  the  man  be  well  off,  a  cotton  quilt,  is  a  catalogue  of  the 
furniture.  They  seldom  eat  meat,  except  when  an  animal  is 
to  be  killed  to  prevent  its  dying  a  natural  death.* 

«  I  Sam.  22  :  I,  2.  *  Tavemier,  p.  7.1;. 

*  Josh.  10  :  16  ff  ;  Judg.  6:2;!  Sam.  13  :  6;   23  :  14,  25,  29;  24  :  3,  4. 
*Pal.  Survey,  Special  Papers,  312. 


ORIENTAL   DWELLINGS,  24I 

349.  Tents. — The  tent,  and  the  hut  or  house,  as  I  have  said, 
are  the  product  of  two  kinds  of  Hfe  and  society — the  nomad, 
or  pastoral,  shepherd  and  herdsmen,  and  the  settled  farmer  or 
dweller  in  some  village.  Each  of  these  modes  of  life  and  of 
dwellings  is  found  widely  in  the  Orient  now. 

Buckingham  tells  of  the  Bedouin  tents  which  he  found  to  be 
"almost  universally  made  of  black  or  brown  hair  cloth.  When 
made  in  camp  the  cloth  was  often  a  mixture  of  goats',  sheep's, 
and  camels'  hair,  in  various  proportions.  The  tent  cover  was 
of  black  goats'  hair,  woven  into  cloth  about  a  yard  wide,  and  as 
long  as  the  tent.  These  long  strips  were  stitched  together,  and 
he  found  from  experience  they  would  keep  off  the  heaviest 
rains."  ^  Such  tents  are  graphically  described  by  the  author  of 
Song  of  Songs: 

"I  am  black,  but  comely, 
O  ye  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 
As  the  tents  of  Kedar, 
As  the  curtains  of  Solomon."  ' 

Of  the  setting  up  of  an  Oriental  tent,  Buckingham  says,  "It 
was  formed  of  one  large  awning,  supported  by  small  poles 
(twenty-four  in  four  rows,  six  in  a  row),  the  ends  of  the  awning 
being  drawn  out  by  cords,  fastened  to  pegs  driven  in  the  ground, 
Shaw  also  saw  and  used  tents  put  up  in  a  similar  way.  He  says 
they  were  kept  firm  and  steady  by  bracing  or  stretching  down 
their  eaves  with  cords,  tied  to  hooked  wooden  pins,  well  pointed, 
and  driven  into  the  ground  with  a  heavy  mallet." 

350.  Family  Tent. — The  usual  shape  of  an  Oriental  tent  is 
oblong,  rarely  round.  If  intended  for  a  large  company  or 
family,  it  is  divided  by  awnings  or  curtains  into  two  or  three 
apartments;  one  for  males,  another  for  females,  and  sometimes 
a  third  room  for  servants  or  for  cattle.  Layard  tells  of  a  sheikh's 
camp  at  Nimrud,  in  which  the  tall,  robust,  courageous,  and 
intelligent  chief  received  him.  At  the  entrance  to  his  capacious 
tent,  of  black  goats'  hair,  he  was  met  and  led  to  the  apartment 

'  Buckingham's  Notes,  p.  37.  -  Song  of  Sol.  1  :  5. 

16 


242  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

divided  by  a  goats'  hair  curtain,  and  assigned  to  men.  This 
reception  apartment  was  also  occupied  by  two  favorite  mares 
and  a  colt.  Camels  were  kneeling  on  the  grass  outside  the 
tent,  and  horses  of  strangers  were  hitched  by  halters  to  the  tent 
pegs.  Carpets  and  rugs  were  spread  for  the  guest,  while  on 
both  sides  were  long  lines  of  men,  seated  on  the  bare  ground 
within  the  tent,  the  sheikh  at  the  farthest  end,  also  on  the  ground, 
out  of  respect  for  his  guest.  He  could  only  be  prevailed  on  after 
excuses  and  protestations  to  share  the  rug  with  the  guest.  In 
the  center  of  this  motley  group  crouched  a  half-naked  Arab, 
blowing  the  dying  embers  of  a  small  fire  of  camels'  dung,  or 
pounding  roasted  coffee  in  a  copper  mortar,  to  fill  the  huge  pots 
that  stood  near  by.* 

351.  Tent  Apartmenis. — This  picture  of  the  shape,  the  setting 
up,  and  the  divisions  of  a  modem  Oriental  tent  might  well  fit 
the  character  of  the  tents  of  thousands  of  years  ago.  Abram 
led  a  pastoral  life  and  "pitched  his  tent"  where  good  pasture 
was  found.  When  that  was  used  up,  "he  removed  .  .  .  and 
pitched  his  tent"  in  a  new  and  more  suitable  place.  Likewise 
his  nephew  Lot  had  "flocks,  herds,  and  tents,"  moving  about 
with  his  uncle,  until  he  parted  with  him  and  settled  in  Sodom.^ 
In  like  manner  Isaac  "encamped  [pitched  his  tent]  in  the  valley 
of  Gerar,  and  dwelt  there."  ^  According  to  Oriental  custom, 
his  son  Jacob  likewise  was  a  quiet  man,  dwelling  in  tents,  as 
his  father  and  grandfather  did  before  him,  but  in  contrast  to 
Jacob,  Esau  was  a  huntsman,  a  freebooter,  after  the  type  of  the 
modem  bandit  of  desert  Arabs. ^  It  shows  us  how  fixed  was  this 
tj-pe  of  life,  and  how  close  the  Oriental  adheres  to  custom,  to 
read  that  centuries  after  the  Rechabites  and  the  people  of 
Kedar  and  other  nations  likewise  dwelt  in  tents,  because  it 
suited  their  mode  of  subsistence.* 

The  figure  of  setting  up  a  tent  was  used  by  the  prophet 
as  an  emblem  of  the  security  which  Jehovah  would  give  to  his 
people,  "I  will  fasten  him  as  a  nail  (literally  a  "tent  peg")  in 

» See  Nineveh,  vol.  i,  p.  56.     ^  Gen.  12  :  8;  13  :  3,  5.  i8-     '  Gen.  26  :  17. 
*  Sec  Gen.  25  :  27.  *See  Jer.  35  :  7,  10;  49  :  29;  Hab.  3:7- 


ORIENTAL  DWELLINGS.  243 

a  sure  place."  *  The  captives  under  Ezra  were  given  a  tem- 
porary safety,  which  he  compares  to  a  "nail"  or  "tent  pin"  in 
his  holy  place.^  Again,  in  a  vision  of  the  coming  glory  of  God's 
people,  the  prophet  compares  it  to  "a  tent  that  shall  not  be 
removed,  the  stakes  whereof  shall  never  be  plucked  up,  neither 
shall  any  of  the  cords  thereof  be  broken."  ^ 

352,  Grotips  of  Tents. — The  Oriental  tent  not  only  has  apart- 
ments under  one  cover,  but  sometimes  separate  tents  are  as- 
signed as  a  mark  of  honor,  or  for  distinction,  or  for  convenience. 
These  seem  to  have  had  their  counterpart  in  patriarchal  times. 
In  the  Genesis  narrative  it  is  said,  "Laban  went  into  Jacob's 
tent,  and  into  Leah's  tent,  and  into  the  tent  of  the  two  maid- 
servants," hunting  for  his  stolen  gods.*  "And  he  went  out  of 
Leah's  tent,  and  entered  into  Rachel's  tent,"  but  failed  to  find 
the  teraphim  or  household  gods.  But  his  grandfather,  Abram, 
dwelt  in  a  single  tent,  for  when  the  angels  visited  him,  Sarah 
was  in  the  woman's  apartment  and  overheard  their  conversation 
through  the  curtain.* 

When  several  tents  were  in  camp  together,  whether  in  peace 
or  in  war,  they  usually  were  grouped  in  some  systematic  order. 
Burckhardt  tells  that  when  there  are  few  tents  in  a  camp  they  are 
arranged  in  a  circle,  called  dowar;  this  is  for  better  protection. 
When  there  are  many  tents  they  may  be  placed  in  a  row  by  the 
side  of  a  stream.  Robinson  saw  a  nomad  encampment  of  these 
tents  arranged  in  a  sort  of  square,  the  tents  were  black,  but  not 
large;  were  open  at  one  end,  and  the  sides  were  turned  up  so 
that  he  could  see  they  were  filled  with  men,  women,  children, 
calves,  lambs,  and  kids;  for  the  band  had  about  six  hundred 
sheep  and  goats,  mostly  goats,  and  a  few  cows.® 

353.  Hebrew  Tent  Life. — Tent  life  occupies  a  large  space  in 
patriarchal  and  early  Hebrew  history.  The  sacred  writers  seem 
to  delight  in  drawing  symbols  and  figures  from  it  to  illustrate 
their  spiritual  teaching.  It  appeals  to  minds  in  every  age  and 
clime.     Thus,  Dr.  Thomson  goes  into  rapturous  dreams,  as 

>  See  Isa.  22  :  23,  and  compare  also  Zech.  10  :  4. 

*  Ezra  9:  8.  '  Isa.  33  :  20.  <  Gen.  31  :  33. 

*Gen.  18  :  i-io.  'Researches,  i,  p.  485- 


244  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

he  introduces  a  traveling  friend  to  his  house-tent,  pitched  among 
oleanders  and  willows,  his  cot  and  luggage  on  the  left,  and  those 
of  his  friend  on  the  right  side  of  the  temporary  abode.  He 
looked  with  wonder  and  alarm  at  the  "hundred  and  one" 
articles  that  the  dragoman,  Salim,  gathered  and  stowed  away 
on  mules,  just  as  every  traveler  has  done,  and  was  amazed  to  see 
his  muleteer,  Ahmed,  sound  asleep,  his  old  cloak  over  him, 
lying  on  the  bare  ground,  a  stuffed  cap  on  his  head,  and  a  stone 
under  it  for  a  pillow,  just  as  Jacob  slept  at  Bethel.^ 

354.  Beside  Ruins  and  Groves. — Tent-camps  are  so  often  by 
some  old  ruin,  town  site,  or  grove  that  Thomson  says  wherever 
you  see  a  clump  of  large  oaks  in  Palestine,  you  may  be  sure  that 
there  once  stood  a  city,  and  there,  too,  is  the  Bedouin's  tent. 
One  class  of  Arabs,  a  generation  ago,  tilled  the  soil,  paid  taxes, 
but  were  contemptuously  diso\\Tied  by  the  genuine  sons  of  the 
desert.  This  Arab  aristrocrat  of  the  desert  would  scorn  to 
intermarry  with  the  "miserable  wretches"  who  dwelt  in  houses, 
and  earn  their  bread  by  honest  toil.  Yet,  even  these  Arabs  live 
in  squalor  and  inexpressible  filth,  but  are  prouder  than  Jupiter. 

Probably  the  peasant's  proverb,  "To  your  tents,  O  Israel,"^ 
may  have  sprung  from  the  tillers  of  the  soil  who  dwelt  in  tents 
rather  than  in  villages.  Thomson  tells  us  again  how  gladly  he 
would  escape  from  the  village,  with  its  crowded  houses,  filthy 
mthin,  and  infested  with  every  sort  of  vermin,  to  enjoy  the 
sunlight,  the  groves,  and  the  sweet  air  of  the  open  country, 
the  proper  heritage  of  the  tent-dweller.  Old  Isaac  dwelt  thus 
in  tents,  so^^'ing  the  land,  and  reaping  the  same  year  a  harvest 
of  a  hundredfold.^ 

355.  Charm  of  Tent  Life. — Again  and  again  does  the  traveler 
in  the  Orient,  like  Dr.  Thomson  on  the  charming  plain  of 
Jezreel,  break  out  in  rapturous  joy  over  the  luxury  of  travel, 
on  bright  days,  in  the  cool  air,  over  the  fragrant  hills  and  in 
tlie  valleys,  robed  with  green,  and  brilliant  with  flowers,  hear- 
ing the  chorus  of  birds'  songs  out  in  the  open  country,  or  in  a 
tent  under  the  clear  blue  sky.    Then  comes  "the  night  so 

»  Gen.  28  :  II.  *  i  Kings  12  :  16.  '  Gen.  26  :  12. 


ORIENTAL   DWELLINGS.  245 

solemn,  almost  sad,  and  yet  are  very  sweet  .  .  .  every  harsh 
sound  subdued,  and  the  soul  called  to  rest  or  reverie.  It  is 
bliss  merely  to  lie  still  and  breathe  .  .  .  while  bygone  memories, 
historic  associations,  and  recent  experiences  chase  each  other 
through  all  the  labyrinths  of  this  fairy  land."  And  to  this  day, 
the  Bedouin  Arabs,  the  modem  Midianites,  sweep  over  the 
plains  of  Jezreel,  robbing  right  and  left,  as  in  the  days  of 
Gideon.* 

356.  In  the  Tent  Door. — Thus,  travelers  in  Oriental  lands 
now  witness  many  interesting  scenes,  strikingly  reminding  them 
of  their  counterparts,  so  often  alluded  to  in  the  Bible.  That 
beautiful  scene  when  Abraham  sat  in  the  tent  door,  in  the 
heat  of  the  day,  and  received  the  strange  messengers,  and 
besought  them  to  accept  his  hospitality,  and  that  other  tragic 
scene,  in  which  Sisera  was  met  by  Jael,  and  persuaded  him 
to  turn  into  her  tent,  which  he  would  not  enter  without  express 
invitation,  and  would  be  thrown  off  his  guard  when  she  offered 
him  food,  as  a  pledge  of  hospitality  and  protection,  have  had 
their  frequent  counterpart  (save  in  the  murder)  in  the  experi- 
ences of  modem  travelers.  Burckhardt  notices  that  his  murder, 
under  these  circumstances,  was  a  clear  violation  of  the  most 
sacred  laws  that  bind  the  dwellers  in  tents,  though  it  is  a  ful- 
filment of  the  threatened  doom  in  Judges  4:  9. 

357.  Tent  Furniture. — The  furniture  of  a  tent  is  of  a  simple 
kind.  Curtains  or  rugs,  which  separate  the  different  apart- 
ments and  which  cover  the  ground,  the  wheat-sacks  and 
camel-bags,  piled  around  the  middle  posts  of  the  tent,  like  a 
pyramid;  the  pack-saddles  upon  which  the  sheikh  and  the 
guests  recline,  the  camel-driver's  stick,  the  butter  and  water 
skins,  the  leathem  bucket  in  which  the  water  is  drawn  from 
the  deep  wells,  the  copper  pan  used  in  cooking,  the  hand-mill, 
the  mortar  in  which  the  wheat  is  pounded,  the  towel  which 
is  spread  under  the  mortar  to  save  any  flour  that  might  fall, 
the  wooden  bowl  into  which  the  camels  are  milked,  the  wooden 
water-cup,  the  wooden  coffee-mortar,   the  coffee-pot,   stones 

>  Judg.  6  :  2-s. 


246  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

on  which  the  pan  is  placed  over  the  fire,  and  the  feeding-bag 
for  the  horses — these  form  the  furniture  and  treasures  of  an 
Arab's  tent.  These  necessities  offer  him  luxury  when  weary 
and  a  royal  feast  when  hungry.* 

'  For  the  counterpart  of  this  picture,  see  Balaam's  poetical  description  of  Iirael,  Num. 
24:5,6.  And  a  similar  poetical  slcetch  of  the  tents  of  Cushan  in  afBiction,  and  tlie  curtains 
of  the  land  of  Alidian  that  trembled,  is  in  Hab.  3  :  7. 


XXXII. 

ORIENTAL  HOUSES. 

358.  Houses. — In  Syria  houses  are  usually  built  of  stone  or 
sun-dried  brick.  Timber  is  too  scarce  and  costly  there,  and 
has  been  so  for  ages.  Houses  in  the  villages  are  usually 
partitioned  into  two  or  three  apartments.  The  front  room, 
in  which  is  the  door,  is  the  common  family  room.  To 
the  family  it  is  sitting-room,  bed-room,  dining-room,  and 
reception-room,  unless  they  have  an  upper  room,  which  can 
be  used  as  a  reception-room.  A  doorway  leads  from  this 
to  the  second  room,  which  may  be  used  to  store  supplies  before 
winter  sets  in.  People  do  not  there  have  access  to  shops  daily 
for  purchases.  Farm  produce  is  stored  in  this  second  room. 
In  the  third  room,  in  the  rear,  there  may  be  kept  cut  straw  and 
other  fodder  for  the  cattle.  Here  will  also  be  found  wood  and 
charcoal  and  farming  implements.  Sometimes  one  of  these 
rooms  is  used  for  domestic  animals,  horses,  donkeys,  or  cattle. 
Thieves  usually  try  to  enter  one  of  the  rear  rooms,  by  digging 
or  breaking  through  the  wall  of  the  house  when  the  people 
are  asleep.  Householders  keep  watch-dogs,  which  are  let 
loose  at  night,  and  in  case  of  special  danger  some  one  of  the 
family  is  on  watch  all  night.^ 

359.  Peasants^  Houses. — Many  peasants'  houses  and  some 
in  the  towns  have  only  a  single  room.  Such  a  room  is  often  large 
in  size,  as  Dr.  Post  tells  us;  the  roof  is  supported  by  pillars, 
made  of  blocks  of  stone,  one  above  another.  Sometimes  these 
are  plastered,  and  often  there  is  a  little  shelf-like  projection 
in  the  plastering,  on  which  a  lamp  is  placed.  Bits  of  colored 
pottery  are  pressed  into  the  plaster  as  ornaments.  The  plaster 
is  also  ornamented  by  Hnes  and  figures  and  bits  of  scalloped 
edging,  pinched  out  while   the   plaster   is  in  a  plastic  state. 

'  This  illustrates  the  parable  in  Matt.  24  :  43;  Luke  12  :  39. 

247 


248  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

These  single-roomed  houses  have  but  one  door  and  often  no 
windows.  The  smoke  from  the  fire  finds  its  way  out  through 
the  door,  and  through  sundry  holes  left  in  the  wall  for  this 
purpose. 

360.  Building  Material. — In  Egypt  the  village  houses  are 
still  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  made  of  wet  earth,  rarely  clay, 
mixed  with  straw  and  chopped  hay.  The  mixing  is  often  done, 
as  of  old,  by  treading  upon  the  earth  and  straw  with  the  feet. 
When  well  mixed  it  is  put  into  molds,  and  set  out  to  dry  in 
the  sun.  Farmers  and  country  people  build  their  houses  out  of 
these  sun-dried  bricks.  The  work  of  making  the  bricks  is 
still  counted  a  bitter  service.* 

In  Syria  and  Western  Asia  the  ordinary  houses  are  also 
built  of  stone  or  sun-dried  bricks.  Sometimes  the  stone  may 
be  hewn,  or  put  in  the  wall  in  a  rough  state,  and  cemented 
with  mud  or  mortar.  Van  Lennep  tells  that  almost  every 
house  in  the  country  m  Western  Asia  is  made  of  crude  or  sun- 
dried  bricks.  Occasionally  one  meets  with  a  bridge,  a  khan, 
a  church,  or  a  mosque  built  of  hewn  stone,  to  which  may  be 
added  some  half-dilapidated  structures,  and  crumbling  walls, 
and  battlements  of  citadels.  The  blocks  of  stone  have  been 
brought  from  some  more  ancient  ruin.  The  traveler  becomes 
used  to  this  patchwork  of  old  inscriptions  turned  upside  down, 
and  of  carved  stones  arranged  haphazard  in  the  walls,  columns 
of  various  materials  and  dimensions  belonging  to  different 
orders  of  architecture,  standing  in  a  row,  and  forming  the 
portico  or  the  building.  Other  dwelUngs  are  made  of  mud 
bricks,  and  this  was  as  much  the  case  in  ancient  times  as  now. 
Where  porous  limestone  is  found,  it  is  cut  into  regular  blocks 
with  a  saw,  and  used  in  the  erection  of  buildings.^ 

361.  Rooms  of  House. — Houses  of  poor  and  rich  in  S}Tia 
are  usually  mixed  together.  There  are  no  quarters  for  the 
wealthy,  and  separate  quarters  for  the  poor,  says  Mr.  Haddad. 
You  may  find  a  fine  palace,  beautiful  outside  and  inside,  and 
close  to  it  a  little  cottage  of  a  very  poor  family.     Even  a  poor 

'See  Ex.  i.  *Van  Lennep,  p.  431. 


ORIENTAL   HOUSES.  249 

invalid  may  sometimes  have  a  booth  or  hut  in  front  or  beside 
the  door  of  a  wealthy  man's  house.  He  may  live  on  gifts 
of  passers-by,  or  of  visitors  to  the  rich  man's  house;  nobody 
objects. 

362.  The  Roof. — The  most  important  and  most  frequented 
portion  of  the  house  next  to  the  reception-room  is  the  roof. 
The  roof  is  made  in  various  ways.  Mr.  Haddad  speaks 
of  a  common  way  in  Syria,  to  lay  beams  across  from  one  side 
to  the  other  of  the  walls,  then  a  mat  of  reeds  on  the  top  of 
these  beams,  then  some  bushes  of  a  thorn,  and  finally,  a  coating 
of  clay  or  earth,  and  scatter  sand  and  pebbles  on  the  top  of  the 
earth,  then  they  roll  it  with  a  roller  of  stone,  to  make  it  com- 
pact, so  that  the  rain  will  not  run  through.  Sometimes  a  little 
space  three  or  four  feet  square  is  cut  in  the  roof,  with  separate 
pieces,  made  like  the  rest  of  the  roof,  or  covered  with  mat  or 
tiling,  which  can  be  taken  up  when  desired.  It  might  have 
been  such  a  place  in  the  roof  that  was  used  in  letting  dovra 
the  paralytic  on  his  rug  or  quilt,  which  would  be  the  only  bed 
an  Oriental  in  such  condition  would  be  likely  to  have.^ 

These  roofs  are  flat,  and  the  terraces  or  parapets  around 
them  are  low,  and  made  of  dried  bricks,  or  stone,  just  like  the 
wall.  If  a  higher  terrace  is  required,  it  is  made  of  lattice- 
work to  screen  the  women  of  the  household.  In  summer  the 
people  of  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Mesopotamia  usually  sleep 
upon  the  housetops.  The  servants  sleep  on  bedding  or  the 
ground  in  the  court  below.  The  very  poor  people  often  sleep 
in  the  streets,  the  open  squares,  the  market-places,  and  courts, 
rolling  themselves  in  a  coverlet,  a  rug,  or  their  outer  gar- 
ments, and  screening  their  faces. 

Many  occupations  are  carried  on  upon  the  roof.  Here  the 
wheat  is  washed  and  spread  to  dry,  the  flax  is  prepared,  and 
vegetables  and  fruits  to  be  stored  in  winter;  wool  and  cotton 
when  washed  is  spread  out  upon  the  roof,  clothes  are  hung 
there  to  be  dried;  as  now,  so  has  it  been  of  old.  Rahab  hid 
the  spies  sent  by  Joshua  under  the  stalks  of  flax,  which  she 

•  Matt.  9  :  a;  Mark  2  :  3;  Luke  5  :  i8. 


250  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

had  laid  upon  the  roof  to  dry.^  Luke  tells  us  that  the  paralytic 
was  let  down  through  the  tiling  or  tiles.  This  might  mean 
that  the  center  portion  of  the  roof  over  the  court  was  covered 
with  a  mat  or  matting  or  tiles.^ 

363.  The  Court. — The  court  in  the  better  class  of  Eastern 
houses  is  often  a  pavement  of  stone,  marble,  or  pebbles,  taste- 
fully designed.  There  may  be  a  fountain  or  well  in  the  court,  a 
litde  garden  vAih  flowers,  shaded  by  orange,  lemon,  or  citron 
trees. ^  This  court  would  be  shut  off  from  the  street;  the  house 
being  built  around  the  court,  the  windows  of  the  house  would 
be  opened  upon  this  court,  and  not  upon  the  street.  But  the 
windows  are  vdthout  glass,  closed  at  night  with  a  single  shutter 
of  wood,  and  fastened  inside  with  a  hook.  Sometimes  the 
door  or  space  for  a  window  would  be  closed  by  a  heavy  rug  or 
piece  of  carpet,  hung  from  the  top  of  the  opening  vdth  a  heavy 
slat  of  wood  fastened  to  the  bottom,  to  keep  it  stretched  in  its 
place  like  a  door.  When  one  is  to  enter,  this  screen  or  curtain, 
called  perdek,  would  be  lifted,  perhaps  on  each  side.* 

364.  Entrance. — The  door  is  the  entrance  way  to  the  house. 
It  is  usually  made  of  some  solid  material.  In  the  giant  cities 
of  Bashan-land,  or  modem  Hauran,  the  door  is  often  a  single 
block  or  slab  of  basalt-stone,  nine  or  ten  feet  long.  Similar 
stone  doors  are  found  in  the  gardens  of  Urumiah,  in  Persia, 
as  Dr.  Perkins  tells  us.  The  hinges  of  these  doors  are  simply 
a  projection,  above  and  below,  fitting  into  holes  in  the  stone 
threshhold,  and  highly  polished,  so  that  they  can  be  opened  by 
a  simple  push  vnth  the  finger.  Outside  doors  have  simple  locks 
of  iron  or  wood,  usually  the  latter.  The  key  of  the  lock  is  a 
piece  of  wood  several  inches  long,  vdth  pegs  at  one  end.  It  is 
not  put  in  a  keyhole,  but  there  is  an  opening  at  the  side  of  the 
door  large  enough  to  admit  one's  hand.  The  key  is  applied 
to  the  wooden  bolt  v^dthin,  its  pegs  fitting  into  corresponding 
holes,  and  by  displacing  another  set  of  pegs  allows  one  to  draw 
the  bolt  aside  and  unfasten  the  door.  *    This  key  is  fastened  to 

1  Josh.  2:6.  *  Matt.  10  :  27;  Luke  5  :  ig;   12:3.  » 2  Sam.  17  :  18. 

*  See  reference  to  this  in  Ps.  24  :  T,  compare  also  Ex.  39  :  38. 
•See  Lane,  Modem  Egypt.,  vol.  i,  p.  24. 


ORIENTAL   HOUSES.  251 

a  string  or  cord,  and  carried  over  the  shoulder  or  attached  to 
the  girdle.' 

365.  Gates. — Oriental  gates  and  large  doors  are  provided 
with  small  doors,  through  which  a  man  can  pass  by  stooping, 
as  Dr.  Post  tells  us.  These  small  doors  are  like  a  panel  in  a 
gate.  The  little  door  is  used  on  ordinary  occasions,  the  large 
door  or  gate  is  opened  on  extraordinary  occasions.  Similar 
arrangements  are  found  at  the  gates  of  walled  cities  and  towns 
for  night  service.  Doors  are  not  opened  without  a  previous 
parley  between  the  porter  and  the  visitor.  If  the  visitor  cannot 
give  a  satisfactory  account  of  himself,  he  is  viewed  through  a 
window  overlooking  the  gate.  Thus,  when  the  disciples  were 
gathered  in  the  house  of  Mary  at  Jerusalem  for  fear  of  the  rulers, 
Rhoda  took  just  such  precautions  as  a  servant  in  an  Oriental 
house  would  take  to-day.^  Dr.  Post  tells  of  his  experience  in 
being  challenged,  as  Peter  was,  by  a  Moslem  servant  and  being 
compelled  to  wait  outside  the  gate  while  the  servant  ran  in  to 
tell  some  one  of  the  household,  and  to  get  an  order  to  let  the 
doctor  in. 

366.  Sleeping  Rooms. — In  the  one-roomed  house  all  the  family, 
says  Dr.  Thomson,  parents,  children,  and  servants,  sleep  in  the 
same  room.  As  they  make  very  slight  changes  in  their  long 
loose  clothing,  and  often  none  at  all  at  night,  the  impropriety 
of  the  custom  as  it  would  appear  to  us,  is  lessened,  but  the 
practice  does  not  tend  to  promote  the  highest  social  purity. 
Sometimes  under  the  same  roof  may  be  father,  sons,  and  grand- 
sons, for  the  sake  of  economy,  but  it  leads  to  confusion  and  lack 
of  independence  in  family  discipline.  This  custom  of  all  the 
family  sleeping  in  one  apartment  is  alluded  to  in  the  parable  of 
the  friend  at  midnight.  When  asked  to  lend  three  loaves,  the 
friend  replies,  "Trouble  me  not:  the  door  is  now  shut,  and  my 
children  are  with  me  in  bed;  I  cannot  rise  and  give  thee."  ^ 
Out  of  this  custom  grew  also  the  law  requiring  that  a  garment 
taken  for  debt  should  be  restored  to  the  owner  before  sundovm.* 

•  See  an  allusion  to  this  carrying  the  keys  upon  the  shoulder  in  Isa.  22  :  n. 
'  Acts  12  :  13,  14.  '  Luke  11:7.  *  Ex.  22  :  26,  27. 


252  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

367.  Beds. — In  Oriental  houses  sleeping  rooms  are  furnished 
not  as  with  us.  Thus,  Lane  says  that  in  Eg)7)t  the  bed  in  day- 
time is  rolled  up,  and  placed  on  one  side,  or  in  a  near-by  closet. 
This  closet  in  winter  is  a  sleeping  place.  In  summer  many 
people  sleep  upon  the  housetop,  a  mat  or  carpet  spread  upon 
the  raised  part  of  the  stone  floor,  and  a  dewan,  or  divan,  consti- 
tute the  furniture  of  a  room. 

368.  Plan  of  Egyptian  House. — The  plan  of  an  Egyptian 
house  is  irregular.  The  apartments  are  of  different  heights, 
so  that  a  person  has  to  go  up  or  down  two  or  more  steps  to  pass 
from  one  room  to  another.  The  aim  of  the  builder  is  to  render 
the  house  as  private  as  possible,  particularly  that  part  of  it  which 
is  occupied  by  women.  He  never  makes  a  window  to  overlook 
the  apartments  of  another  house.  It  is  also  planned  so  as  to 
make  a  secret  door,  from  which  the  tenant  may  make  his  escape 
in  case  of  danger,  either  from  arrest  or  assassination.  There  is 
also  a  hiding  place  for  treasures,  called  a  mukhba,  in  some  part 
of  the  house.  In  Egyptian  tovras,  shops  occupy  the  lower  part 
of  a  house  in  a  street  or  thoroughfare,  the  upper  part  being  used 
as  a  dwelling.  Sometimes  the  upper  part  is  divided  into  several 
apartments  or  lodgings  for  different  families.  There  is  one 
entrance  and  one  staircase  to  the  several  apartments.  They 
are  not  furnished. 

369.  Of  Bricks. — The  Egyptian  houses  of  the  lower  order, 
as  of  peasants,  are  built  chiefly  of  unbaked  bricks,  cemented 
with  mud.  Some  of  them  are  mere  hovels.  The  greater 
number  comprise  two  or  more  apartments;  very  few  are  two 
stories  high.  The  ceiling  is  low.  In  one  of  these  apart- 
ments of  peasants  in  lower  Egypt  there  is  an  oven  at  the 
end,  farthest  from  the  entrance,  and  occupying  the  whole 
viddth  of  the  chamber.  It  resembles  a  wide  bench  or  seat, 
and  is  about  breast-high,  made  of  brick  and  mud,  the  roof 
arched  within  and  flat  on  the  top.  The  people  of  the  house, 
who  seldom  have  any  special  night  covering,  during  the  win- 
ter sleep  upon  the  top  of  this  flat  oven.  The  rooms  have 
small  holes  high  up  in  the  walls  to  admit  light  and  air;  some- 


ORIENTAL  HOUSES.  253 

times  these  holes  have  a  grating  of  wood.  The  roofs  are 
formed  of  palm  branches  and  palm  leaves,  or  of  stalks  of 
millet,  laid  upon  rafters  of  the  trunk  of  the  palm,  and  covered 
with  a  plaster  of  mud  and  chopped  straw.  The  furniture  is 
a  mat  or  two  to  sleep  upon,  a  few  earthen  vessels,  and  a  hand- 
mill  to  grind  com.  In  villages,  large  pigeon-houses  of  a  square 
form,  but  with  the  walls  slightly  inclining  inward,  like  many  of 
the  ancient  Egyptian  buildings,  or  of  the  shape  of  a  sugar  loaf, 
are  constructed  upon  the  roofs  of  the  huts,  with  crude  brick, 
pottery,  and  mud.  The  pigeon-houses  are  sometimes  of  oval 
form,  with  a  vnde  mouth,  and  a  small  hole  at  one  end,  a  pair  of 
pigeons  occupying  each  separate  place.  Again,  many  of  the 
villages  of  Egypt  are  upon  eminences  of  rubbish,  and  a  few  feet 
above  the  inundations  of  the  Nile,  surrounded  by  palm-trees, 
or  having  a  few  of  these  trees  near-by.  The  rubbish  consists 
of  the  ruins  of  former  huts,  and  seems  to  increase  in  about  the 
same  degree  as  the  level  of  the  alluvial  plains  and  the  bed  of 
the  river. 

370.  Syrian  Housetops. — In  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  in 
summer  the  family  sleep  upon  the  housetop.  Dr.  Tristram 
was  so  entertained  frequently.  When  there  was  a  porter,  he 
says,  "We  were  literally  locked  out  for  the  night,  and  had  to 
summon  him  to  admit  us  for  our  ablutions  in  the  morning.  In 
humbler  families  the  master  of  the  house  locked  the  door  below, 
and  followed  us  up  the  steps  to  the  roof  of  the  empty  house." 
Sometimes  there  is  a  guest-chamber  on  the  roof,  such  a  chamber 
as  the  woman  of  Shunem  had  her  husband  build  for  the  prophet 
"on  the  wall."  That  means  that  the  "chamber"  was  reached 
from  the  outside  by  steps  on  the  wall,  so  that  the  prophet  might 
be  free  to  go  and  come,  and  to  have  privacy.  Tristram  tells 
us  of  such  guest  chambers  in  Syrian  tovms  now.^  Perhaps  it 
was  in  such  a  room  that  Nicodemus  sought  Jesus  by  night.^  A 
room  like  this  could  be  reached  just  as  the  prophet's  room  at 
Shunem  by  outer  steps  wathout  the  observation  or  knowledge 
of  the  inmates  of  the  dwelling.     Moreover,  such  a  room  on  the 

•  See  also  2  Kings  4:8.  '  John  3:2;  19  :  39. 


254  ORIENTALISMS   IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

roof  was  just  the  place  to  have  suggested  the  figure  which  Jesus 
used.  The  breeze  blowing  over  the  roof  would  give  emphasis 
to  the  illustration,  "The  wind  bloweth  where  it  will,  and  thou 
hearest  the  voice  thereof,  but  knowest  not  whence  it  cometh,  and 
whither  it  goeth:  so  is  every  one  that  is  born  of  the  Spirit."  ^ 

371.  "Upper  Room.'' — Again,  such  a  large  upper  room,  or 
alliyeh,  might  have  been  the  one  where  the  last  Passover  was 
held.  The  disciples  inquired  for  the  kataluma,  literally  the 
"resting  place."  The  ordinary  resting  place  of  an  Eastern 
house  is  a  shelter-place  upon  the  roof,  opening  into  the  court- 
yard. It  would  have  couches  or  mats,  a  low  table;  the  guests 
would  recline  upon  the  mats  when  eating.  No  doubt,  Peter 
at  Joppa  retired  at  noon  to  a  room  on  the  housetop  for  prayer, 
as  Daniel  in  Babylon  had  done  before  him.^  The  flat  roof 
had  a  parapet  which  shielded  the  visitor  from  observation, 
and  protected  him  from  falling  off  the  roof,  as  required  by  the 
Deuteronomic  law.^  "Wlien  Jesus  healed  the  paralytic,  he 
was  probably  in  the  lewan,  a  room  en  the  ground  floor,  looking 
upon  the  court.  Thus,  the  dust  and  dirt  that  might  fall  from 
opening  the  roof  would  fall  into  the  court,  and  not  into  the 
room  where  Jesus  stood. 

372.  Mtid  Walls. — Dr.  Thomson  notices  the  frail  houses 
or  huts  built  of  loose  stones  and  mud,  -with  roofs  that  will 
"drop  through"  in  a  single  wdnter  because  of  neglect,  and 
then  the  walls  wash  down  by  the  rain  into  shapeless  heaps, 
illustrating  the  proverb  m  Eccles.  10:  18,  and  the  statement  in 
Job  15 :  28,  of  houses  which  are  ready  to  become  "heaps."  The 
prophet  also  uses  the  same  careless  method  of  building  to  de- 
scribe the  destruction  which  will  come  upon  the  people,  because 
they  build  a  wall  and  daub  it  with  untempered  mortar.* 

373.  Stmrcase. — An  outside  staircase  to  an  Oriental  house 
is  quite  common.  Thus,  Dr.  Robinson  says  the  house  was 
built  around  a  small  court,  in  which  cattle  and  horses  were 
stabled,  then  a  stone  staircase  led  up  to  the  roof  of  the  house 
proper,  on  which  at  the  northwest  and  southwest  corners  were 

'  Tolm  3  :  8,  R.  V.  *  Acts  lo  :  9;  Daniel  6  :  10. 

*  Deut.  22  :  8.  *Ezek.  13  :  10,  11. 


ORIENTAL  HOUSES.  255 

high  single  rooms,  like  towers,  with  a  staircase  inside,  leading 
to  the  top.' 

Dr.  Shaw  states  that  in  Burbary  the  stairs  are  sometimes 
placed  in  the  porch,  sometimes  at  the  entrance  into  the  court, 
when  there  is  one  or  more  stories,  and  are  afterward  con- 
tinued through  one  comer  or  other  of  the  gallery  to  the  top  of 
the  house,  whither  they  conduct  us  through  a  door.  We  may 
go  up  or  come  down  by  the  staircase  without  entering  into 
any  of  the  offices  or  apartments,  or  interfering  with  the  business 
of  the  house.^  A  similar  experience  is  narrated  by  Drs.  Bonar 
and  McCheyne  of  a  century  ago.  "The  house  has  a  staircase 
from  the  flat  roof  down  into  the  street,  by  which  the  owner 
could  descend  and  escape,  without  passing  through  the  house, 
if  danger  called  for  it.^ 

374.  In  India. — Captain  Hall  notices  a  similar  plan  of  the 
houses  in  India:  "My  friend,  the  Hindu,  got  on  his  feet,  cast  the 
long  folds  of  his  wrapper  over  his  shoulder,  stooped  down, 
and  having  rolled  up  his  mat,  which  was  all  the  bed  he  re- 
quired, walked  into  the  house  with  it,  and  then  proceeded  to 
the  nearest  tank  to  perform  his  morning  ablutions."  Another 
Syrian  traveler  of  a  century  ago  states,  "We  had  now  to  retire 
to  rest,  not  on  a  bed  raised  from  the  ground  'with  posts  and 
canopy,  but  upon  the  floor.  From  a  large  receptacle  in  the 
room  two  thick  cotton  quilts  were  taken  out,  one  of  which  was 
folded  double  as  a  mattress,  and  the  other  as  a  covering,  with 
large  flat  pillows  for  our  heads."  This  reminded  him  of  the 
command,  "Take  up  thy  bed  and  walk."  Shaw  describes 
a  different  experience:  "At  one  end  of  each  chamber  there  is 
a  litde  gallery,  raised  three,  four,  or  five  feet  above  the  floor, 
with  a  balustrade  in  front  of  it,  with  a  few  steps  leading  up  to 
it.  Here  they  place  their  beds,  a  situation  frequently  alluded 
to  in  the  Scriptures,  and  illustrating  Hezekiah's  turning  his 
face  when  he  })rayed  toward  the  wall,  that  is,  from  his  attend- 
ants. So  also  Ahab  turned  his  face  toward  the  wall  to  con- 
ceal from  his  attendants  his  disappointment.* 

'  Resenrrbes,  iii,  302.  '  Barbary,  i,  379. 

'  Mission  to  the  Jews,  1.17.  ■«  i  Kings  21:4;  2  Kings  30  :  2, 


XXXIII. 

KHAN,   CARAVANSARY,   INN,    STOREHOUSE. 

375.  Kinds  of  Inns. — Public  lodging  places  in  Oriental  lands 
are  of  three  kinds — khan,  caravansary,  and  menzil.  A  khan 
is  a  building,  generally  in  or  near  a  to^^Ti,  to  shelter  travelers, 
but  without  furniture,  landlord,  food,  or  fodder.  A  caravan- 
sary is  a  lodging  place,  a  somewhat  pretentious  building,  often 
in  remote  places  and  under  the  control  of  the  government. 
The  better  class  of  caravansary  sometimes  appears  to  the 
stranger  like  a  castle  or  fortress;  the  wall  is  high,  the  building 
extends  several  yards  on  each  side  of  the  square  or  court,  which 
it  encloses.  Commonly,  it  is  built  of  brick  or  stone.  In  the 
center  of  the  front  wall  is  the  entrance,  usually  an  archway,  over 
which  may  be  chambers  under  shov%7  domes.  On  each  side, 
under  the  arched  roof  of  the  portico,  may  be  keeper's  rooms, 
sometimes  shops,  where  articles  required  by  travelers  are  kept 
for  sale.  Entering  the  archway,  the  traveler  sees  a  porch 
extending  on  each  side  of  the  interior  of  the  quadrangle, 
leaving  a  spacious  court  in  the  middle.  The  arched  recesses 
in  the  wall  around  are  like  apartments,  divided  from  each  other 
by  walls,  but  open  in  front,  paved,  rarely  having  a  place  for 
fire.  In  the  middle  of  each  of  the  three  sides  of  the  building 
is  a  larger  apartment,  not  divided,  used  for  the  travelers  to 
smoke,  while  they  gossip  or  tell  tales.  Sometimes  along  the 
outward  wall  of  the  building,  back  of  the  apartments,  is  a 
series  of  cell-like  places  for  servants  and  poor  people  or  for 
animals,  but  usually  the  animals  are  within  the  court. 

376. — Bare  Lodges. — The  traveler  furnishes  his  own  bedding, 
cooking  utensils,  and  provisions.  At  the  angle  or  comer  of  the 
square,  flights  of  steps  lead  to  the  roof  or  to  the  second  story 
of  the  building.  Such  buildings  may  be  found  in  Persia  and 
in  other  Oriental  lands. 

Buckingham  found  such  khans  or  caravansaries  in  Damascus 
256 


KHAN,   CARAVANSARY,   INN,    STOREHOUSE.  257 

nearly  a  century  ago.  There  the  court  was  paved  with  flat 
stones,  polished  and  neatly  put  together;  in  the  center  was 
a  large  fountain  flowing,  and  the  walls  of  black  and  M^hite 
stones  were  profusely  ornamented.  Two  Scottish  travelers, 
Dr.  A.  A.  Bonar,  and  R.  M.  McCheyne,  found  an  old  dilapi- 
dated khan  in  the  last  century  between  Sidon  and  Tyre.  As 
night  came  on,  one  company  and  another,  with  mules  and 
tinkling  bells,  fiUed  the  khan,  till  the  square  presented  quite  a 
lively  appearance.  They  pitched  their  tent  on  the  roof  of 
the  old  ruin  where  the  grass  had  been  allowed  to  grow. 

377.  Castle  Khan. — Dr.  Thomson,  journeying  from  Tabor  to 
the  Jordan,  found  a  khan  et  Tejjar  (inn  of  the  merchants) 
near  Sulam.  In  fact,  there  were  two  khans,  one  on  a  hill  about 
a  hundred  feet  square,  with  octagonal  towers  on  the  comers. 
It  was  both  castle  and  khan.  Another  larger  khan  was  in  the 
valley  below.  It  had  a  fountain  within  the  walls,  vaults  and 
magazines  on  either  side,  and  was  fitted  up  with  rooms  for  trav- 
elers and  for  the  storing  of  merchandise.  The  place  was  de- 
serted, and  no  inhabited  house  in  sight.  Caravans  did  not 
spend  the  night  there  for  fear  of  Arabs  watching  to  rob.  Thom- 
son adds,  "I  have  never  halted  there  for  half  an  hour  without 
having  some  of  these  rascals  pass  along  and  scrutinize  my  party 
closely,  to  see  whether  or  not  it  would  do  to  attack  us."  In  his 
day  a  great  fair  was  held  on  Monday  of  each  week  at  the  khans. 
Thousands  of  people  assembled  from  all  parts  of  the  country  to 
seU,  trade,  or  purchase.  Cotton  comes  from  Nablils;  barley, 
wheat,  sesamum,  and  com  from  the  Hfileh,  the  Hauran,  and 
Esdraelon.  Horses,  donkeys,  cattle,  and  flocks,  with  cheese, 
leben,  semen,  honey,  and  other  articles  from  Gilead  and 
Bashan-land.  These  are  mixed  up  with  such  things  as  chickens 
and  eggs,  figs,  raisins,  apples,  melons  and  grapes,  and  all  sorts 
of  fruits  and  vegetables  in  their  season.  Peddlers  are  there 
with  packages  of  fabrics,  the  jeweler  with  his  trinkets,  the  tailor 
with  his  ready-made  garments,  the  shoemaker  with  his  stock, 
from  rough  and  hairy  sandals  to  yellow  and  red  morocco  boots, 
the  farrier  with  his  tools,  nails  and  flat,  iron  shoes,  driving  a 
17 


258  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

prosperous  business  for  a  few  hours,  as  does  also  the  saddler. 
Every  one  is  crjing  his  wares  at  the  top  of  his  voice;  chickens 
cackle  and  squall,  donkeys  bray  and  fight,  and  the  dogs  bark. 
Every  hving  thing  adds  something  to  the  many-toned  and  pro- 
digious uproar.  It  is  an  excellent  opportunity  to  see  Syrian 
manners,  customs,  and  costumes. 

378.  Persian  Khans. — Layard  describes  the  khans  on  the 
road  between  Bagdad  and  sacred  places,  as  large  edifices  built 
by  Persian  kings  or  wealthy  and  pious  men  for  pilgrims.  These 
have  large  open  squares,  generally  with  raised  platforms,  of 
brickwork  for  travelers  to  sleep  on  during  summer,  and  are 
surrounded  by  small  apartments  or  cells  for  winter  use.  Be- 
hind them  spacious  stables  for  horses  rim  around  the  whole 
building,  and  within  these  stables,  on  both  sides,  are  other 
cells  for  travelers.^ 

Dr.  H.  C.  Fish  found  a  similar  old  khan  a  generation  ago 
between  Ramleh  and  Jerusalem.  If  was  built  of  stone,  and 
covered  quite  an  area,  having  beside  the  ground  floor  a  second 
story,  reached  by  stairs  on  the  outside.  On  the  upper  floor 
travelers  who  have  the  means  take  their  quarters,  pa>ang  a 
pittance  for  the  use  of  the  furniture  there,  which  consisted  of  a 
few  rickety  chairs  and  tables,  and  two  or  three  verminous  cots, 
dignified  as  beds.  Baedeker's  Guide  wisely  ad\ises  the  traveler 
never  to  resort  to  a  khan,  caravansary,  or  a  hut  of  the  peasants 
(the  latter  generally  built  of  mud)  except  as  an  absolute  neces- 
sity, because  they  swarm  with  fleas  and  other  vermin.  If  com- 
pelled to  use  them  he  should  see  that  the  straw  matting  which 
covers  the  floor  is  taken  up  and  thoroughly  beaten,  and  the  whole 
place  carefully  swept  and  sprinkled  with  water.  Every  article 
of  clothing  and  bedding  belonging  to  the  inmates  should  be 
removed  to  another  room.  The  tents  of  the  Bedouin  are  free 
from  bugs,  but  are  terribly  infested  with  lice.  Scorpions  also 
are  plentiful  in  Syria,  but  they  seldom  sting  unless  irritated. 
If  the  bed  is  slightly  raised  from  the  ground  the  sleeper  is  quite 
safe  from  their  attacks. 

'  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  478. 


KHAN,    CARAVANSARY,    INN,    STOREHOUSE.  259 

The  huts  of  the  peasants,  described  above,  which  are  offered 
for  the  use  of  travelers,  are  sometimes  called  menzils.  North 
of  Beisan  is  a  large  khan,  el  Ahmar.  It  may  have  been  along 
this  road  and  by  this  khan  that  the  Ishmaelites  came  with 
their  camels,  bearing  spices,  and  balm,  and  myrrh,  going  to 
carry  them  down  to  Egypt,  and  to  whom  Joseph  was  sold  by  his 
brothers.* 

379.  Syrian  Inns. — Prof.  Post,  outof  his  experience,  describes 
the  Oriental  khan  or  inn  as  a  range  of  vaulted  chambers  around 
a  large  open  court.  These  chambers  have  only  small  high 
windows,  no  glass  for  ventilation  toward  the  outer  side,  but  are 
quite  open  toward  the  court.  Along  the  walls  are  stone  mangers 
for  the  mules  and  asses,  and  doubtless  in  one  of  these  the  babe 
was  laid.  This  was  not  a  sign  of  Joseph's  poverty,  or  of  Jesus' 
humiliation,  but  because  a  great  number  of  pilgrims  crowded 
the  rooms  above  the  vaulted  chambers.  Prof.  Post  adds,  "It 
is  quite  comrrion  for  well-to-do  people  to  sleep  in  the  vaulted 
chambers  with  their  beasts  of  burden,  or  in  the  open  court,  or 
on  the  grass  outside  the  khan.  The  khan,  or  inn,  mentioned 
in  the  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan  was  one  of  the  rarer  kind 
where  the  guest  lodges,  and  can  buy  from  the  keeper  what  his 
own  foresight  has  not  provided." 

380.  Bethlehem  Inn. — Thus,  the  "inn"  wherein  there  was  no 
"room  for  them,"  Mary  and  Joseph,  was  one  of  the  unfurnished 
chambers,  above  or  around  the  court  of  the  khan,  not  itself 
so  much  better  than  the  vaults  where  the  cattle  are  housed. 
These  chambers  are  bare  walls,  viith  a  stone  or  composition 
floor  and  blackened  roof,  as  cheerless  and  unhomelike  as  one 
can  conceive. 

381.  India  Rests. — Dr.  Russell  describes  similar  resting  places 
in  India,  where  part  of  the  court  is  planted  with  trees  and 
flowering  shrubs  and  the  rest  paved.  In  one  end  of  the  square 
is  a  basin  of  water,  and  close  to  it  upon  a  stone  platform,  two 
or  three  feet  above  the  court,  is  a  small  pavilion,  sometimes  a 
divan  upon  it,  or  a  larger  divan  is  in  the  court,  opposite  the  basin 

»  Gen.  37  :  25.  «  S.  S.  W.,  July,  1878. 


26o  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

looking  to  the  north,  and  protected  from  the  sun.  The  fra- 
grant plants  give  a  sweet  scent  to  the  air.  In  siinilar  manner  are 
the  royal  palaces  constructed.  The  Persian  palace  had  a  series 
of  courts,  one  of  which  was  named  the  inner,  and  the  other  the 
outer;  the  former  of  which  was  reserved  for  a  private  audience 
with  the  sovereign.^ 

382.  Storehouses. — Storehouses  are  not  usually  pretentious 
buildings,  as  with  us,  but  secret  underground  pits  or  places 
secure  from  bandits  and  from  the  rapacity  of  tyrannical  rulers. 
The  rich  m.an  of  the  parable  who  would  build  larger  bams, 
strictly  storehouses,  to  store  his  grain,  his  goods,  and  his  other 
treasures,  no  doubt  including  his  coin  and  his  gems,  would 
build  them  in  some  hidden  spot  or  underneath  the  ground.^ 
Other  storerooms  were  built  of  a  pretentious  character,  as  in 
Egypt.  Thus,  the  buildings  erected  at  Pithom  by  the  Israelites 
appear  to  have  been  large  storehouses  above  ground.  Yet,  Dr. 
F.  J.  BHss,  the  explorer,  suggests  that  some  of  these  granaries 
m.ay  have  been  large  pits  dug  in  the  hard  ground,  with  narrow 
mouths,  similar  to  the  pits  in  which  the  wandering  Arab  stores 
his  com  to-day.  He  adds,  "Pits  of  this  kind,  but  smaller,  con- 
taining perhaps  the  stores  of  a  single  family,  were  recognized  in 
our  excavations  at  Lachish  and  elsewhere.  These  were  filled 
up  quite  solidly  when  we  excavated  them,  but  their  circumference 
of  hard  earth  was  distinctly  preserved.  In  one  case  at  Lachish 
a  chamber  was  found  full  of  charred  barley,  which  had  been 
stored  away  some  three  thousand  years  ago,  and  burned  before  it 
ever  could  be  used."  ^ 

383.  Store  Pits. — Mr.  Iladdad  also  says  storerooms  in  the 
private  houses  are  still  built  in  S>Tia  as  in  olden  days.  The  roofs 
are  flat  and  level,  the  walls  usually  of  stone.  In  the  houses  they 
leave  a  little  square  spare  between  two  beams,  covering  it  vdih. 
a  thin  slate,  stone,  or  tile,  above  which  they  put  the  thom  bush, 
a  layer  of  clay,  and  of  cement.  They  divide  part  of  the  room 
with  partitions,  one  space  for  wheat,  another  for  barley,  another 

•  A  graphic  description  of  these  courts  is  to  be  found  in  the  book  of  Esther  4  :  11, 16;  5  : 
X,  2;  6  :  4- 

»  Luke  12  :  18.  •  S.  S.  W..  May,  1907. 


KHAN,   CARAVANSARY,   INN,    STOREHOUSE.  261 

for  com.  They  carry  the  sacks  of  grain  to  the  top  (roof)  and 
from  that  opening  they  empty  them  into  the  bins  inside  the 
room.  These  houses  have  stone  stairs  at  the  outside  of  the  house. 
Up  these  stairs  the  sacks  of  grain  are  carried,  and  emptied  into 
the  space  below.  After  all  their  grain  is  put  in  through  the 
opening  they  replace  the  tile  and  cement  upon  the  opening  as 
before.^  Sometimes  these  pits  are  in  the  court  of  the  house,  as 
already  stated.  To  give  gi-eater  security,  the  storehouse  pit 
may  be  under  the  women's  apartment.  Tristram  tells  that  in 
Arab  dowars  these  wells  for  barley  and  grain  are  found  under  a 
wattled  chamber,  in  the  village  square.  This  custom  is  clearly 
referred  to  in  2  Sam.  4:6,"  they  came  thither  into  the  midst  of 
the  house,  as  though  they  would  have  fetched  wheat."  It  was 
in  such  a  well  or  grain  storehouse  that  Jonathan  and  Ahimaaz 
were  hidden  from  Absalom.  The  messengers  "came  to  the 
house  of  a  man  in  Bahurim  who  had  a  well  in  his  court;  and  they 
went  down  thither.  And  the  women  took  and  spread  the  cover- 
ing over  the  well's  mouth,  and  strewed  bruised  grain  thereon." 
After  Absalom's  servants  had  gone,  the  messengers  came  out 
of  the  pit  and  reported  Absalom's  conspiracy  to  David.^ 

>  S.  S.  W.,  1906;  see  "Silos,"  under  Section  XXX.  'See  2  Sam.  17  :  15-20. 


XXXIV. 

PROPERTY,    TAXES,   RIGHTING  WRONGS. 

384.  Personal  Rule. — Government  by  the  people  is  an  idea 
foreign  to  Asiatics.  Oriental  rulers  have  ever  claimed  a 
divine  right  to  rule,  hence  Oriental  peoples  refer  all  acts  and 
responsibilities  of  government  to  the  ruler;  he  is  absolute 
sovereign.  Of  necessity,  he  must  rely  upon  others  to  examine 
petitions,  recommend  appointments  and  pardons,  and  execute 
his  will.  But  the  typical  Oriental  ruler  takes  no  counsel  of 
legislatures,  parliaments,  or  cabinets.  In  Turkey  the  Sultan 
has  a  grand  vizier  to  execute  his  will,  yet  he  may  repudiate 
and  disown  any  of  his  acts.  Joseph  was,  in  fact,  the  grand 
vizier  of  Pharaoh.^  The  ruler  reserved  the  right  to  express 
his  will  to  any  petitioner.  Any  subject  to  whom  he  held  out 
the  scepter  could  present  a  petition,  and  was  morally  sure  of 
having  it  granted.  A  marked  instance  of  this  is  given  in  the 
book  of  Esther.^ 

385.  Divine  Right. — The  chief  system  of  government,  of 
which  the  Oriental  has  any  idea,  is  by  an  autocrat  or  despot. 
Less  than  a  generation  ago,  Prof.  Post,  out  of  a  life-long  resi- 
dence in  Turkey,  declared,  "that  universal  suffrage,  trial  by 
jury,  rotation  in  office  by  election,  would  seem  unmitigated 
evils  for  Turkey.  Several  generations  of  popular  education 
are  yet  needed  to  enable  even  Christians  in  Turkey  to  grapple 
with  the  problem  of  self-government."  He  adds,  "Certainly 
all  who  live  among  Asiatics  are  convinced  that  the  divine 
right  of  government  is  the  safe  doctrine  for  them.  Any  such 
ideas  as  the  social  compact,  or  any  approach  to  popular  insti- 
tutions is  regarded  as  anachronism  and  a  disaster  for  them." 
Perhaps  he  might  modify  this  extreme  statement  now.  Under 
even  such  conditions,  he  conceives  that  rulers  are  a  terror  to 

«  Gen.  41  :  41.  *  Esther  5  :  2-4. 

262 


PROPERTY,    TAXES,    RIGHTING   \\  RONGS.  263 

the  evil  doer,  since  an  honest  man  with  good  sense  and  indus- 
trially disposed,  is  treated  fairly  well  in  countries  as  mis- 
governed as  some  of  those  in  the  East  seem  to  be.  It  may  be 
a  truthful  man  has  an  advantage  sometimes  more  marked 
for  being  surrounded  by  a  company  of  liars! 

386.  Head  of  All.— An  Oriental  ruler  thus  regards  himself 
as  the  head  of  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth.     The  former 
Sultan  of  Turkey  was  addressed  as  "king  of  kings,  and  lord 
of  lords."     It  is  said  that  when  he  traveled  in  Europe  he  put 
Turkish  soil  in  his  shoes  that  he  might  not  tread  upon  the  soil 
of  his  hosts,  because  if  he  should  do  this,  they  would  become 
part  of  his  dominions,  accordmg  to  his  theory.     All  rulers  of 
the  East,  says  Prof.  Post,  are  addressed  in  terms  of  flatter^-, 
which  would  be  regarded  as  ironical  in  the  West,  and  all 
Oriental  kings  assume  a    style  which  would  be   counted  as 
absurd  and  make  them  a  laughing  stock  in   Europe.     This 
habit  comes  down  through  the  ages.     Thus  Cyrus,  king  of 
Persia,  declared,  "The  Lord  God  of  heaven  hath  given  me  all 
the  kingdoms  of  the  earth.''^    A  forcible  illustration  of  the 
arbitrary  and  tyrannical  acts  of  Oriental  rulers  is  given  me 
by  Prof.  Post.     The    Pasha,  controUing   the  Beirut  district, 
wshed  to  make  a  road  near  the  college,  taking  in  a  portion  of 
the  college  land.     He  had  the  trees  cut,  the  roads  staked  out 
without  the  slightest  attention   to  the  protests  and  entreaties 
of  the  property  owners.     When  the  president  of  the  munici- 
pality was  asked  why  the  property  had  been  taken  without 
compensation,  he  replied  that  there  was  no  use  in  remonstirat- 
ing  against  the  orders  of  the  governor-general.  ^  Mr.  Haddad 
states  that  Damascus  makes  a  heav>'  appropriation  every  year 
to  repair  the  roads  for  the  Haj  caravan  to  Mecca.     Boatmen, 
muleteers,  and  other  persons  are  impressed  into  the  service 
with  littie  or  no  compensation;  forced  gifts  of  money,  horses, 
clothing,  and  provisions  are  also  exacted. 

387.  Not  Law,  But  Custom.— The  people  of  the  East  have 
little  idea  of  observing  law  or   of   keeping  contracts  to  the 


>  E2xa  I  :  2. 


264  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

letter.  In  fact,  custom  rules  the  Asiatic  mind,  as  fashion  rules 
that  of  the  West;  the  custom  changes  not,  while  fashion  may 
change.  It  is  customary  for  a  ruler's  decree  to  be  unalterable. 
Thus  the  king  responded  to  his  counsellors  when  they  appealed 
to  him,  accusing  Daniel  of  breaking  the  law.^  The  common 
people  do  not  say  "it  is  unlawful,"  they  say  more  forcibly, 
"it  is  not  our  custom."  They  would  not  answer,  "it  is  not  right, 
or  wise,  or  good,  or  desirable,"  they  would  simply  declare 
"it  is  not  according  to  my,  or  our,  custom."  That  ends  all 
debate.  An  American  was  seen  talking  with  a  bride,  chatting 
freely  with  her,  her  eyes  open,  her  face  radiant,  when  an 
Arab  guest  entered,  and  she  closed  her  lips  and  eyes,  and  stood 
quite  impassive.  When  asked  why  she  did  this,  she  answered, 
it  was  a  great  disgrace  in  the  eyes  of  the  natives  for  a  bride  to 
manifest  any  feeling  but  shame,  but  added,  naively,  "You 
know  it  is  not  customary  to  be  ashamed  before  the  Franks." 
She  regarded  all  Europeans  and  Americans  as  Franks. 

In  this  century  the  spirit  of  liberty  is  spreading  among  Eastern 
peoples,  and  many  of  them  are  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  of  tyranny. 

388.  Possessions. — The  various  plans  of  acquiring  and 
holding  property  were  briefly  treated  in  XVIII.  I  may 
add  here  that  in  Syria,  as  in  most  of  the  Orient,  outside  of 
cities  and  towns,  the  apparent  land  owner  is  not  a  true  pro- 
prietor. He  has  been  called  an  "eternal  mortgagee."  He 
must  pay  the  government  a  tenth  of  the  land  product  every 
year.  This  tithe  is  collected  in  kind,  that  is,  in  grain,  oil, 
wines,  or  fruits.  No  matter  what  proportion  is  taken,  the 
payment  is  always  called  a  tithe,  although  it  may  be  one-fifth, 
or  one-half  even,  of  the  produce.  Renting  out  land  is  a  mode 
of  farming  prevalent  in  the  East.  The  tenants  may  contribute 
their  work  in  terracing  and  planting  a  vineyard,  tilling  the  soil, 
trimming  the  \'ines,  and  the  labor,  the  caring  for  the  vintage, 
the  treading  the  wine-press,  curing  the  raisins,  or  carrying  the 
grapes  to  market. 

'  Dan.  6  :  13. 


PROPERTY,    TAXES,    RIGHTING   WRONGS.  265 

389.  Tenants'  Rights. — They  usually  receive  one-fourth 
to  one-third  of  the  produce,  or  an  equivalent  in  money.  Often 
the  landlord  loans  them  money  on  the  coming  harvest,  and 
deducts  the  sum  with  ruinous  interest  from  the  produce. 
Such  landlords  are  generally  absentees,  and  send  agents  to 
superintend  the  division  of  the  product.  This  custom  will 
illustrate  the  parable  of  the  wicked  husbandmen.*  In  Syria 
the  rentals  of  all  land  are  on  the  cottier  principle,  who  rent  their 
property  also  on  the  idea  of  permanent  tenancy,  with  metairial 
rights.  The  tenant  farmers  are  often  real  squatters,  but  in 
the  chaodc  state  of  law  seriously  contest  the  ovmership  of  the 
property.  The  disappearance  of  direct  heirs  may,  in  some 
cases,  embarrass  questions  of  property  in  farming  land.  Con- 
tests involving  issue  of  ownership  are  among  the  most  common 
in  the  Turkish  courts. 

390.  RigJits  in  Cities. — Upon  the  character  of  property 
holdings  in  Syria  Prof.  Post  remarks,  "Properties  in  cities 
change  hands  frequently,  adding  to  the  risks  of  commerce  and 
manufactures,  and  the  great  diversity  of  employments  and 
opportunities.  The  more  patriarchal  and  agricultural  states 
have  commerce  and  manufactures.  Hence,  the  greater  im- 
probability of  regaining  through  some  other  channel  property 
lost  in  any  other  way.  In  the  country,  with  but  one  channel 
for  industry,  the  tendency  would  always  be  to  absorption  of  real 
estate  by  the  most  gifted,  so  each  generation  would  witness 
an  extension  of  the  properties  of  the  large  land  holders  at  the 
expense  of  the  smaller,  with  little  chance  of  those  who  had  lost 
ever  regaining  their  patrimony.  Such  a  state  of  things  tends 
to  tyranny  and  the  degradation  of  the  working  class,  as  the 
history  and  the  present  state  of  Turkey  abundantly  shows," 

391.  Inheritance  Customs. — In  Turkey  sons  cannot  be  disin- 
herited, as  in  Europe.  Prof.  Post  says  some  rich  families  in 
Beirut  have  sons  in  Alexandria,  Paris,  and  London,  yet  such  is 
the  unity  of  the  family  tie  that  these  absent  sons  remain  part- 
ners of  the  parent  firms,  and  return  with  their  share  of  the  for- 

1  Matt.  21  :  33-41. 


266  ORIENTALISMS   EN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

tunes  made,  to  build  their  homes  beside  the  paternal  mansions. 
One  such  family  has  a  half  dozen  palatial  houses  on  the  highest 
hill  of  the  city  and  within  a  few  rods  of  each  other.  This 
throws  light  on  the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son.^  On  the  other 
hand,  the  arbitrary  interpretation  of  the  law  or  custom  of  in- 
heritance has  furnished  cases  of  indefiniteness  as  to  the  heirs  as 
well  as  to  the  master  of  any  property.  The  twist  of  the  law,  or 
caprice  of  the  ruler,  might  make  a  m.an's  family  beggars. 

392.  Taxes. — Taxes  in  Oriental  lands,  especially  in  Turkey 
and  elsewhere,  are  farmed  out  to  be  collected  by  those  who 
purchase  the  privilege.  True,  the  law  technically  limits  it 
to  one-tenth.  You  ask  how  can  the  collector  get  more  than  this  ? 
Quite  easily.  The  publican  or  tax  collector  has  the  govern- 
ment behind  him.  He  sends  spies  to  watch  and  prevent  every- 
body from  using  their  harvest  products  until  he  has  his  share. 
For  example,  he  has  assumed  the  taxes  to  be  collected  in  a  given 
district  at  a  certain  sum.  He  employs  ever}'  agency  in  his  power 
to  make  the  taxes  yield  their  utmost. 

393.  An  Example  of  Robbery. — Suppose  the  taxes  of  a  given 
province  to  be  $50,000.  He  agrees  to  pay  that  sum  to  the  govern- 
ment. He  goes  to  that  province,  takes  up  his  quarters  in  a 
town,  the  people  hasten  to  him  with  presents  of  wheat,  milk, 
eggs,  rice,  to  conciliate  him.  He  has  horses  and  horsemen  who 
must  be  fed  at  the  expense  of  the  tax-payers.  If  they  do  not  use 
him  and  them  well,  he  will  abuse  them,  and  extort  twice  or  thrice 
his  due.  Complaints  to  the  government  are  forestalled  by 
bribes,  and  no  redress  is  to  be  obtained  from  his  exactions. 
While  the  tax  is  but  a  tenth  of  the  produce,  the  amount  taken 
from  the  poor  farmer  may  amount  to  one-half  or  even  two-thirds. 
For,  he  will  not  give  the  farmer  permission  to  harvest  his  pro- 
duce without  bribery,  he  will  not  let  the  people  eat  their  own 
fruits  in  their  greatest  need,  nor  allow  them  to  feed  their  hungry 
animals  that  work  in  the  field.  He  sometimes  compels  the 
owners  to  muzzle  their  animals,  he  accuses  the  peasants  of  steal- 
ing their  own  fruits,  and  then  they  are  fined  tvdce  the  price  of 

'  Luke  IS  :  11-32. 


PROPERTY,    TAXES,    RIGHTING   WRONGS.  267 

the  fruits.  Half  of  the  fine  from  this  robbery  is  given  to  the 
complainant,  and  the  other  half  to  the  tax-gatherer.  For  all 
these  things  the  tax  collector  or  publican  of  the  East  is  the  most 
odious  of  human  kind,  and  supremely  hated.  In  Egypt  there 
are  personal  taxes  besides  the  land  rent,  and  these  taxes  were 
formerly  collected  by  the  aid  of  a  hippopotamus  whip.  AH 
these  modem  customs  throw  great  light  upon  the  narrative  of 
Zacchffius  and  his  interview  with  Jesus.^ 

394.  Suffer  vs.  Suits. — In  many  countries  of  the  Orient  it 
is  more  advantageous  to  suffer  a  wrong  than  to  attempt  to  have 
it  officially  righted.  For,  being  judged  in  Asia  is  a  calamity, 
whether  the  case  is  decided  for  or  against  the  litigant,  says  an  old 
resident  and  native.  If  in  his  favor  it  must  be  in  virtue  of  a 
large  gift,  and  if  against  him  it  may  be  in  total  disregard  of 
justice  or  equity.  The  magistrates  or  judges  have  small  salaries, 
living  almost  wholly  from  bribes.  Thus,  the  chief  justice  of 
Cyprus  before  its  annexation  to  England  received  a  salary  of  one 
hundred  dollars  a  year.  The  Turkish  government  received 
four  million  piastres  a  year.  When  it  came  under  English 
supervision,  it  paid  twenty-four  millions,  though  the  population 
and  resources  of  the  island  had  not  increased  materially  in  the 
two  years. 

395.  The  Victim. — The  judge  is  not  the  only  one  who  in- 
flicts loss  upon  the  prisoner.  The  unfortunate  man  must  pay 
all  his  expenses  while  in  jail  and  a  large  backshish  to  the  offi- 
cers in  charge  for  such  privileges  as  are  allowed.  Of  the 
delays  in  Turkish  justice  a  resident  writes,  "Should  you  have 
lived  in  this  century  in  Turkey,  and  had  to  go  to  Constanti- 
nople with  an  appeal  to  the  Sublime  Porte,  you  would  think 
the  Roman  Courts  fine  in  comparison.  Many  cases  had  been 
delayed  five,  eight,  twelve,  and  sometimes  eighteen  years,  and 
the  one  who  had  appealed  has  been  spending  his  money,  not 
knovdng  when  the  end  of  that  case  will  come.  If  you  went  to 
the  Sublime  Porte  during  the  last  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
you  would  see  thousands  crowded  around  that  palace,  from  all 

*  Luke  19  :  2-10. 


268  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

the  States  of  the  Empire,  some  free,  some  of  them  in  prisons, 
waiting  from  month  to  month,  and  years  may  pass  before  they 
are  given  trial  or  their  cases  heard.  Physicians  who  spent  the 
best  part  of  their  hves  in  studies,  and  were  near  reaping  the  fruit 
of  their  labors,  were  obliged  to  go  to  the  capital  to  register  their 
diplomas  permitting  them  to  practice,  but  some  of  them  were 
detained  for  years.  They  spent  their  money,  and  through  their 
grief  and  sorrow  from  not  practicing  their  profession  lost  much 
of  their  ability  and  loiowledge,  and  if,  after  all,  they  got  permis- 
sion, they  would  go  to  their  homes  broken-hearted,  without  the 
means  to  start  in  business,  their  lives  ruined  by  delay.  These 
facts  illustrate  the  case  of  Paul's  appeal  to  Caesar. 

396.  Criminals — Bribes. — In  the  case  of  one  accused  of  crime, 
the  accuser  usually  conducts  his  ovra  case,  but  there  is  little 
making  of  speeches.  It  chiefly  depends  upon  the  judge,  who  is, 
accordingly,  the  recipient  of  the  lion's  share  of  bribes.  A  long 
resident  of  the  Turkish  Empire  states  that  bribery  is  so  much 
a  feature  of  Asiatic  government  that  salaries  are  expressly  ad- 
justed with  reference  to  it.  It  is  charged  that  bribery  is  universal 
among  the  oflacials  in  the  Turkish  Empire.  No  one  is  ashamed 
of  it,  they  all  practice  it,  while  all  condemn  it  in  theory.  A  great 
bishop  would  bribe  a  zeptieh  just  as  the  chief  priests  and  elders 
bribed  the  Roman  soldiers.^  Mr.  Wad-el- Ward,  a  native  of 
Palestine,  declares  that  the  recently  deposed  Sultan  was  a  usurper 
not  a  descendant  in  the  direct  line  of  the  prophet  as  he  claimed, 
but  was  of  the  nomad  Tartars.  Positions  were  to  be  bought 
by  the  highest  bidder  in  Constantinople.  He  declares  that  the 
former  Pasha  of  Jerusalem,  having  fifty  to  a  hundred  servants 
and  twenty  wives,  and  a  correspondingly  large  family,  received 
only  $500  a  year.  He  is  said  to  have  secured  the  position  by 
paying  $50,000  for  it.  Of  course,  he  could  easily  find  ways  to 
recoup  himself  whenever  a  complaint  appealed  to  him  for  justice. 
In  a  controversy  between  two  persons  the  one  that  pays  the  most 
is  morally  sure  of  his  case.  As  in  the  collection  of  taxes,  the 
ofloicials  have  the  authority  to  extort  any  amount  by  oppres- 

'Matt.  28  :  H-15. 


PROPERTY,   TAXES,   RIGHTING   WRONGS.  269 

sion  and  cruelty,  so  an  official  in  a  province  may  claim  that  a 
village  has  committed  some  ofifense  through  some  citizen,  and 
if  an  assessed  amount  is  not  paid  over  to  the  official,  he  sends 
mounted  police,  who  stay  in  the  town  until  the  amount  is  paid. 

397.  Extortions. — A  similar  kind  of  extortion  is  carried  on  by 
customary  gifts  to  a  governor  or  official  of  a  province.  This 
custom  throughout  the  Orient  has  not  changed  for  thousands 
of  years.  A  present  of  lambs  is  a  special  sign  of  respect  as  a 
free-will  offering  to  the  official  and  is  not  intended  to  imply  any 
necessity  or  compulsion  from  either  side.  To  offer  a  sum  of 
money  is  not  considered  as  great  a  respect  as  to  offer  a  lamb, 
because  the  latter  gift  has  a  peculiar  significance  in  the  East. 
When  a  host  wishes  to  honor  a  distinguished  guest,  all  that  he 
may  do  for  him  is  as  nothing  to  that  of  killing  and  serving  the 
choicest  lamb  of  his  flock.  Mr.  Haddad  says,  "I  once  heard  a 
lieutenant-governor  upbraiding  a  man  who  brought  him  a  poor 
lamb  as  a  present,  telling  him,  'the  dogs  would  refuse  to  eat 
the  meat  of  that  lamb,  if  they  were  able  to  find  any  meat  on  its 
bones,  for  it  appeared  to  be  nothing  but  skin  and  bones.  As  a 
mark  of  respect  it  fails  to  answer,  and  you  rather  insult  me 
than  honor  me  by  offering  such  a  poor  lamb."* 

398.  Debtors. — In  Oriental  lands  it  is  generally  allowable 
to  imprison  one  for  debt.  How  poor  the  security  for  debts 
is  may  be  indicated  by  the  high  rate  of  interest  demanded, 
usually  from  twelve  to  sixty  per  cent.  But  according  to 
Moslem  law  interest  cannot  be  demanded  or  received,  so  the 
creditor  requires  the  debtor  to  count  in  interest  vtith  the  prin- 
cipal, and  agree  to  pay  the  full  sum  for  both  principal  and 
interest  as  having  already  been  received.  When  pay-day  arrives 
he  is  usually  unable  to  meet  his  promise,  then  the  value  of 
a  new  note,  with  interest  added,  is  given,  and  this  promise 
goes  on  until  the  man  who  owed  fifty  owes  five  thousand,  and 
his  whole  property  is  swept  away  by  the  remorseless  creditor. 
Debt  is  nearly  universal  among  all  Asiatic  races.  It  is  the 
custom  to-day,  as  thousands  of  years  ago,  for  creditors  to  charge 
a  high  rate  of  interest,  and  hence,  those  who  loan  money  are 


270  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

hated  and  usually  denounced.  Farmers  are  ruined  by  debts, 
and  sometimes  they  or  their  families  are  reduced  to  slaver)'. 
Under  the  Turkish  law  to  this  day  a  man  will  shut  up  his  debtor 
in  prison,  but  he  must  make  some  provision,  of  about  twenty 
cents  a  day,  for  feeding  him,  and  the  time  is  Hmited  to  about  one 
hundred  days.  A  debtor,  however,  can  be  arrested  many 
times  in  succession  for  the  same  debt,  if  it  continues  unpaid. 

399.  Prisons. — Oriental  prisons  are  dark,  foul,  and  noisome 
places.  A  resident  of  Turkey  says  the  prisons  in  Syria  and 
Palestine  are  chiefly  those  that  were  built  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans;  a  few  have  been  constructed  by  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment in  a  litde  different  style.  They  are  great  buildings  of 
stone,  the  walls  from  three  to  six  feet  thick,  and  they  usually 
are  diNided  into  three  parts;  the  inner  one  has  no  window, 
the  second  part  has  one  window,  and  the  third  has  one  or  two 
v^indows.  The  inner  room  has  no  opening,  except  the  door- 
way, which  is  closed  by  a  heavy  iron  door,  with  heavy  locks. 
The  prisoners  are  obliged  to  sit  on  the  damp  floor,  where  the 
air  is  foul  and  oppressive,  and  a  dim  light  straggles  in  through 
the  grating  over  the  door.  This  inner  room  is  intended  for  the 
worst  of  criminals,  who  are  chained  to  the  wall  by  fetters 
around  the  wTists,  anldes,  and  sometimes  the  neck.  Guards 
are  stationed  at  the  door  or  by  the  room  itself.  In  the  middle 
room  is  a  vdndow,  heavily  barred,  with  littie  ventilation, 
where  the  prisoners  are  also  bound  by  chains  attached  to 
the  wrists,  but  they  are  allowed  to  move  about  the  cell,  though 
a  strict  watch  is  kept  on  them.  Sometimes  they  have  a  mat 
to  sleep  upon.  In  the  outer  apartment  are  prisoners  for  debt 
and  the  like,  w'ho  may  be  allowed  bedding  of  their  own.  Prof. 
Post  tells  of  a  jail  in  Beirut  which  consisted  of  a  series  of 
unpaved  vaulted  rooms  under  the  administrative  apartments. 
The  rooms  are  on  a  level  of  the  large  open  court  of  the  Seraglio, 
and  are  lighted  by  low  windows,  barred  with  iron  gratings. 
The  prisoners  are  huddled  together  in  the  filthy  apartments, 
with  littie  distinction  between  those  charged  with  grave  and 
light  crimes,  and  with  no  hope  of  a  speedy  trial,  unless  they 


PROPERTY,   TAXES,    RIGHTING  WRONGS.  27I 

have  influential  friends  or  money  influence.  It  is  not  common 
for  the  government  to  provide  nourishment  for  the  prisoners 
taken  on  suspicion,  or  for  debt,  or  for  those  upon  whom  sentence 
has  not  been  pronounced. 

400.  The  Jailer. — Usually  the  compassion  of  the  jailer 
depends  upon  the  amount  of  backshish  which  he  receives. 
Solitary  confinement  is  too  expensive  for  Asia.  The  prisoners 
are  thus  thrust  together  in  a  lonesome,  stable-like  dungeon. 
There  is  little  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the  jailer.  The 
high  officials  are  not  in  any  way  interfered  with  in  their  plans 
of  plunder,  and  the  jailer  may  discriminate  in  favor  of  one 
prisoner  without  fear. 

Prisoners  are  net  always  committed  on  suspicion  of  crime, 
but  often  at  the  arbitrary  will  of  a  ruler,  or  at  the  instigation  of 
some  man,  and  their  imprisonment  is  then  for  a  term  limited 
only  by  the  caprice  or  the  cupidity  of  the  ruler.* 

>  See  Matt,  s  :  35,  36. 


XXXV. 


RELIGION  AND   MORALS. 


401.  Orientals  Devout. — It  is  a  common  saving,  man  is  a 
religious  being.  But  every  Oriental  counts  himself  excep- 
tionally devout  and  emphatically  a  worshiping  creature. 
Religions  are  many  and  countless  in  their  diversities.  Thus, 
in  Syria  the  first  question  asked  a  man  in  court  is,  "What  is 
your  religion?"  Government  enrolls  the  entire  population 
according  to  religious  devotions.  No  greater  insult  can  be 
offered  an  Oriental  than  to  say  he  has  no  religion.  Some  kind 
of  religion  is  part  of  his  inheritance;  his  patrimony. 

There  is  no  end  of  names  and  salutations  framed  out  of,  or 
which  include,  the  name  of  God.  Holy  days,  social  worship- 
ers, intermarriages,  prayers,  fastings,  feasts,  vows,  pilgrimages, 
shrines,  weleys,  charms,  relics,  saints,  tombs,  and  sacred 
sites  mthout  number,  and  everywhere  and  in  every  home,  and 
always  apparent,  speak  of  the  stress  the  people  universally 
lay  upon  what  they  call  religion  and  a  display  of  worship. 

402.  Not  Pious. — It  is  the  united  testimony  of  missionary 
travelers  and  students  in  the  Orient,  out  of  long  experience  and 
observation,  that  the  Oriental  attaches  secondary  value, 
however,  to  practical  piety.  Thus,  Dr.  Post  says  of  the  sects 
in  Syria,  that  if  a  man  is  true  to  the  externals  of  religion,  he 
is  not  debarred  of  its  privileges  on  account  of  immoralities. 
He  tells  of  a  Moslem  hung  for  murder  in  Beirut  some  years  ago 
who  was  accorded  religious  honors  of  the  most  pious  kind, 
for  though  a  murderer,  he  was  none  the  less  a  Moslem  believer. 

403.  Not  Moral. — Morality  is  at  a  low  ebb.  Ljing  is 
almost  universal.  WTiile  many  Syrians,  says  Dr.  Post,  tell 
the  truth  at  times,  and  a  few  do  it  nearly  always;  it  is  admitted 
that  no  native  will  tell  the  truth  at  once  and  simply  if  it  is  dis- 
agreeable.    "As  a  physician,"  he  says,  "I  am  daily  asked  by 

272 


RELIGION   AND   MORALS.  273 

friends  of  my  patients  to  tell  the  sick  that  he  will  soon  be  well 
or  that  he  doesn't  need  my  services.  If  I  cannot  tell  these 
falsehoods,  the  friends  will  tell  them  for  me,  and  appeal  to 
me  before  the  sick  man  to  confirm  them."  He  was  called  to 
a  desperate  case  of  illness  in  Lebanon,  and  asked  to  tell  the 
sick  person  that  his  illness  was  very  trifling,  or  that  he  was 
visiting  near  by,  or,  if  he  would  not  do  that,  to  say  that  he  was 
provoked,  as  a  physician,  to  be  called  to  see  one  who  had  no 
need  of  his  services.  And  dozens  of  other  ways  were  proposed 
of  deceiving  the  sick  under  like  circumstances. 

Natives  generally  do  not  expect  to  keep  promises  or  agree- 
ments. A  carpenter,  muleteer,  or  peasant  will  promise  to 
do  something  for  you,  or  meet  you  at  a  certain  time,  just  to 
please  you,  when  he  knows  he  has  another  engagement  or 
another  job  begun  that  will  surely  prevent  him  from  doing  so. 
Therefore,  life  insurance  companies  decline  to  take  policies 
on  Oriental  lives  because  of  the  difficulty  of  getting  trustworthy 
testimony  in  case  of  accident. 

404.  Profane. — Perjury,  profanity,  and  cursing  are  con- 
spicuous vices  among  Orientals,  and  often  as  ridiculous  as  they 
are  wicked.  Impurity,  obscene  language,  and  the  like  are 
vridespread  evils.  To  offset  this  catalogue  of  social  evils 
and  vices  they  have  the  love  of  children  and  love  of  parents; 
winning  and  beautiful  traits  of  character,  a  marked  contrast 
with  their  vices. 

405.  Display  in  Worship. — Oriental  worship  and  devotion 
are  largely  external  acts,  apparentiy  for  display,  hence  hypoc- 
risy is  a  notable  sin,  the  normal  state  of  man  in  the  East. 
Some  declare  that  everybody  is  a  hypocrite  there.  Fasting, 
for  example,  is  a  mere  exchange  of  time  and  kinds  of  nourish- 
ment. Moslems  have  some  delicate  and  choice  viands  of  the 
year  for  the  night  festival  of  the  month  of  Ramadan,  the  great 
month  of  fasting.  The  Moslem  fasts  all  day  and  gorges 
himself  all  night. 

406.  Saints  and  Holy  Men. — Holy  men  and  saints  are 
among  the  most  familiar  of  spectacles  in  Syria  and  the  East, 

18 


274  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS, 

as  well  as  in  India.  Their  devoutness  is  external.  One  of 
these  sallow,  lean,  sour-faced,  fanatical  dervishes,  or  sheikhs, 
walking  with  fixed  downcast  eyes  through  the  crowd,  mutter- 
ing his  prayers,  while  the  passers-by  reach  out  for  his  hand, 
or  the  borders  of  his  garment,  to  kiss  and  bow  low  in  reverence 
before  him,  are  common  sights.  It  is  nothing  that  the  holy 
man  is  dirty,  ill-mannered,  surly,  ignorant  of  everything 
but  his  narrow  circle  of  ideas,  proud,  cruel,  and  vindictive; 
he  is  a  holy  man,  belongs  to  the  saints,  and  so  is  revered.  It 
is,  perhaps,  charitable  to  add,  that  through  constant  mental 
suggestion  he  has  transformed  himself  into  this  strange  fa- 
natical stage,  self-deceived  into  supposing  that  the  more  he 
despises  the  world  and  the  comforts  of  it,  the  more  holy  he  is, 
irrespective  of  his  inward  and  spiritual  disposition  and  charac- 
ter. 

407.  Belief  in  Unseen. — It  is  widely  conceded  that  true 
religion  had  its  origin  among  Orientals.  For  all  the  great 
religions,  those  most  widespread  in  the  world,  had  their  origin 
in  the  Orient.  The  chief  sacred  books  of  the  world  are  pri- 
marily Oriental.  If  it  be  not  absolutely  true  that  no  race  or 
tribe  is  entirely  without  religion,  yet  it  is  true,  as  Darwin 
asserts,  that  belief  in  unseen  or  spiritual  agencies  seems  to 
be  universal  even  with  the  most  civilized  races.  This  belief 
in  spirits  is  termed  animism,  and  is  almost  if  not  quite  uni- 
versal in  the  human  race.  It  is  foreign  to  my  purpose  to  state  in 
detail  the  various  forms  in  which  it  expresses  itself,  or  is  found 
to  exist  in  the  various  Oriental  races. 

408.  Nature  Worship. — The  great  variety  of  forms  of  nature 
worship  arises  from  the  belief  in  some  invisible  spirit,  and 
reverence  for  the  invisible  or  incomprehensible  powers  at 
work  in  nature.  It  is  also  aside  from  my  purpose  to  treat  in 
detail  the  question  of  how  various  forms  of  worship  have 
arisen.  This  much  both  reason  and  divine  revelation  appear 
to  make  clear.  Man  was  conscious  that  his  friendship  with 
God  had  been  interfered  with.  He  was  not  in  that  friendly 
relation  with   the  Supreme  Being  which   gave  him  comfort 


RELIGION    AND   MORALS.  275 

and  confidence.  The  Oriental  is  a  conspicuous  example  of 
this  attitude.  A  careful  observer  in  Syria  ^  says,  "All  believe 
in  God  from  Damascus  even  to  Beersheba.  There  are  no 
materialists,  although  they  seem  to  doubt  about  some  things 
incomprehensible  to  them.  They  further  believe  Scripture 
is  given  of  God,  that  angels  accompany  every  human  being, 
one  on  each  shoulder,  that  a  judgment  day  is  inevitable,  that 
destiny  is  written  on  every  man's  forehead  at  birth,  and  no 
accident  can  annul  it."  ^ 

409.  God's  Friend. — To  put  himself  in  friendly  relations 
again  vi^ith  God,  the  Oriental  would  make  a  contract  or  cove- 
nant, just  as  one  man  would  make  a  covenant  vdth  another. 
I  have  described  some  of  the  forms  of  covenant  which  men  made 
among  themselves  in  a  former  section.  Such  covenants  re- 
quired to  be  ratified  in  a  solemn  and  sacred  manner.  This 
ratification  of  the  new  contract  or  covenant  of  friendliness  into 
which  man  entered  with  God  to  establish  the  new  relations 
for  protection,  and  for  guidance,  and  help,  led  to  the  various 
forms  of  offerings,  sacrifices,  and  altar  services,  and  other 
form.s  of  worship  which  have  come  down  to  us.  It  was  natural 
that  these  offerings  should  be  made  at  the  door  of  his  tent  or 
dwelling.  In  patriarchal  times  the  head  of  the  family  would 
make  such  offerings  for  the  household. 

410.  A  Covenant.— Some  would  go  further  than  this,  and 
aflfirm  that  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  point  to  a  primi- 
tive rite  of  a  covenant  made  at  the  door  as  a  basis  of  common 
religious  ritual,  and  that  gleams  of  the  same  germinal  idea 
show  themselves  in  the  best  features  of  all  the  sacred  books 
of  the  East.^  So,  too,  the  Karens  of  Burmah  have  folklore 
traditions  that  reflect  an  apparent  trace  of  the  Genesis  narra- 
tive, covering  tales  of  the  creation  of  woman  from  the  rib  of  the 
first  man,  of  the  sin  of  the  first  human  pair,  of  punishment  for 
it,  and  of  some  hope  of  deliverance  through  "white  foreigners  " 
from  the  West.* 

>P.  J.  Baldensperger.  'Pal.  Quar.,  1903,  p.  309. 

3  See  Trumbull,  Threshhold  Covenant,  p.  228. 

*  See  also  Dr.  Brown,  "Nearer  and  Farther  East,"  p.  216. 


276  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

411.  An  Expression  of  Worship. — The  covenant,  however, 
became  largely  an  external  expression  of  worship,  and  stood 
for  much  of  the  devotion  of  the  worshiper.  Thus,  another 
scholar  writing  of  the  primitive  races  of  Syria  says,  "Among 
Christians  and  Moslems  religion  does  not  extend  beyond 
keeping  feasts,  fasts,  and  saying  prayers.  Application  of 
religion  to  practical  life  is  almost  unknown."  ^  Moreover, 
women  among  Orientals  are  specially  exempt  from  the  prac- 
tice of  religion  in  common  life,  and  are  said  not  to  think  about 
it.  A  native  of  Jerusalem  says  women  do  pray  sometimes, 
but  not  as  a  rule,  for  Moslem  law  virtually,  if  not  actually,  for- 
bids prayers  for  women,  but  prayers  are  mere  repetitions,  two 
to  five  times  of  the  same  sentence;  if  missed  one  day  they  can 
be  repeated  the  next  day.  To  the  very  devout,  there  are  five 
prayers  a  day,  morning,  mid-day,  afternoon,  sunset,  and  even- 
ing. The  exceedingly  devout  would  also  add  a  prayer  at  mid- 
night. This  writer  adds,  "As  a  whole,  women  are  very  care- 
less in  obser\ing  prayers.  There  may  be  some  modem 
Miriams  and  Deborahs,  and  some  who  lead  the  singing  at 
funerals  or  as  mourners,  yet  these  singers  are  usually  very 
wicked.  In  a  modem  Oriental  tov/n  women  will  xvith  disdain 
speak  against  a  Bedouin  woman  to  this  day,  just  as  Miriam 
spoke  against  ]\'Ioses  because  of  his  Ethiopian  wife."^ 

412.  Religions  Mejnbership. — It  has  been  well  said,  Eastern 
life  cannot  be  understood  apart  from  religion.  The  native 
Oriental  has  little  conscience  as  to  doctrine  or  morals,  says 
Prof.  Grant.  Church  membership  is  what  citizenship  is  to  us. 
Religion  is  used  to  secure  patronage,  immunity,  some  kind 
of  self-advantage.  A  moral  life  and  religious  growth  do  not 
of  necessity  enter  into  the  conception  of  religion  in  the  Eastern 
mind.  Out  of  his  experience  in  village  life  in  Palestine,  Prof. 
Grant  tells  us  some  \'illages  are  mostly  or  altogether  Moslem, 
others  mostly  or  altogether  Christian.  In  Syria  the  Moslem 
population  greatly  outnumbers  the  Christian,  though  the 
Christian  population  is  no  inconsiderable  portion.    There  are 

»  Pal.  Quar.,  1900,  p.  84.  '  Num.  is. 


Samaritan  High  Priest  and  Old  Pentateuch  Roll.  P.  225 

(Copyrisht  by  Underwood  &■  Underwood,  New  York.) 


AxciEM'  Rock  Altar,  Zorah. 

JUDG.  13  :  19,  20 
(J.  1:.  Hanauer.) 


V.   J77 


RELIGION   AND  MORALS.  277 

several  small  villages  outside  Bethlehem,  in  Palestine,  for 
example,  where  the  Christians  exceed  the  Moslems.  He 
points  out  what  other  travelers  have  noticed,  that  a  Christian 
village  is  known  from  afar  by  its  more  prosperous  look,  and 
Christian  quarters  of  a  mixed  village  are  distinguished  by  the 
same  favorable  marks.* 

413.  Ecclesiastical  Organizations. — These  villages  have  strong 
ecclesiastical  establishments,  and  church  life  in  the  country  is 
the  political  life,  and  church  dignitaries  are  skilful  and  clever 
in  poUtics.  The  Moslem  stands  strong  for  his  faith,  the  Greek 
Christian  will  scorn  the  thought  that  Christ  and  the  Bible  are 
for  Moslems.  In  fact,  "religious  sects  in  the  Orient  remind 
one  of  volcanic  islands;  they  are  either  ablaze  with  the  fierce 
fires  of  an  eruption,  or  else  they  are  overlaid  with  the  ashes 
of  an  extinct  fire.  Between  crazy  fanaticism  and  cold  inani- 
tion, there  are  no  warm  impulses  of  unselfish  evangelism." 
Even  the  Semite  peasant  drifts  in  his  worship  to-day  as  in  the 
ages  past.  He  sometimes  has  only  the  veneer  of  some  new 
faith  to  escape  persecution.  The  Palestine  peasant  thus  has 
worshiped  Baal,  Jehovah,  Moloch,  Jesus,  and  the  Moslem 
Allah.  Underneath  these  forms  of  worship  students  discover 
a  basic  religion  which  runs  much  the  same  through  all  the 
changes.  It  is  a  species  of  superstition  mixed  with  external 
devotion. 

414.  Pillars  of  Worship. — It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  pillars, 
or  images,  or  obelisks,  like  the  sphinx  of  Egypt,  which  must 
be  connected  with  the  religious  sentiment  of  the  people  of  the 
Orient.  These  objects  of  worship  were  set  up  frequently  by 
the  Hebrews  at  various  periods  and  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom.^  The  prophet  denounced  this  form  of  idolatry  and 
mixed  Jehovah  worship  in  the  severest  terms.^  They  even 
used  the  jewels  of  gold  and  silver  which  God  had  given  them 
to  make  into  images  of  men,  and  for  this  judgment  was  pro- 
nounced upon  Jerusalem.*     Some  suppose  that  the  sphinx  of 

'  Peasantry  of  Palestine,  p.  44. 

»See  I  Kings  14  :  23;  a  Kings  3  :  2;  10  :  26,  27;  18  :  4;  23  :  14;  2  Chron.  14  :  3$ 
31  :  ,.  '  See  Ezek.  7  :  so.  *  Ezek.  16  :  15-34. 


278  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE  LANDS. 

Egypt  was  an  object  of  idolatrous  worship.  Many  images  of 
a  similar  character  of  marble  and  stone  have  been  found  in 
Syria.  There  is  one  about  five  miles  northwest  of  Baalbec 
called  El  Kamoua.  It  is  a  column  of  sixteen  square  stones, 
surmounted  by  a  carved  stone  crown,  the  whole  pillar  is  about 
sixty-five  feet  high,  and  was  probably  worshiped  in  olden 
times.  Another  is  to  be  found  west  of  the  city  of  Haman, 
which  is  more  like  a  stone  building,  and,  as  has  been  mentioned, 
shrines  are  abundant  everywhere  throughout  all  Syria  and  Asia. 


XXXVI. 


PRAYERS  AND   VOWS. 


415.  Use  of  God's  Name. — No  part  of  the  human  race  is 
more  devout  than  the  Oriental.  Every  mention  of  God's 
name  by  him  was  once  counted  a  prayer.  The  Arab,  Prof. 
Post  tells  us,  has  the  name  of  God  on  his  lips  from  morning 
to  night.  The  mystic  power  of  that  name  is  part  of  his  relig- 
ious consciousness.  If  a  man  slips  and  falls  he  instinctively 
ejaculates  "Allah"  (God).  If  you  ask  him  how  he  is,  his 
answer  is  prompt,  "God  bless  you,"  which  means  "I  am  well." 
If  a  child  is  greatly  admired,  they  say  of  it,  "The  name  of  God 
is  on  you."  If  you  ask  one  whether  he  will  do  a  certain  work 
he  answers,  "If  God  vdlls";  you  ask,  "Are  you  well?"  again 
the  answer,  "As  God  wills,"  and  if  you  say,  "I  hope  you  will 
do  this  better  the  next  time,"  again  his  answer  is,  "As  God 
wills."  You  exclaim,  "What  a  beautiful  view!"  the  Arab 
responds,  "As  God  wills."  He  never  loses  sight  of  the  First 
Cause  in  speaking  of  second  causes.  Thus,  the  doctor  tells 
him,  "I  hope  to  restore  or  help  your  sight,"  he  answers,  "If 
God  wills,"  or  the  doctor  says,  "There  is  no  hope,"  and  again 
his  response  comes,  "As  God  wills." 

416.  Personal  Names. — While  the  Hebrew  would  never 
utter  one  name  of  God,  that  is,  Jehovah  or  Javeh,  always  sub- 
stituting Adonai,  yet  that  first  name  of  God  he  made  a  part 
of  a  great  class  of  proper  names  of  persons  and  places,  as, 
Abijah,  Ahaziah,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Azariah,  Benaiah,  Jacob, 
Jahaz,  Josiah,  Moriah,  Obadiah,  Urijah,  Zedekiah.  In  a 
similar  way  proper  names  abound  in  Arabic,  compounded  of 
the  name  of  Allah.  Again,  the  other  prominent  Hebrew  name 
for  God,  "El,"  is  likewise  widely  used  as  a  part  of  proper  names. 
Thus,  for  example,  we  have  Daniel,  Eleazar,  Eldad,  Elijah, 
Elihu,  Elkanah,  Ezekiel,  Israel,  Peniel,  Uzziel,  and  scores  of 

279 


250  ORIENTALISMS  IN   BIBLE   LA2WS. 

other  similar  compounds  showing  the  frequency  with  which 
the  Semitic  languages  introduced  the  various  names  of  God 
into  names  of  persons  and  places. 

417.  God  a  '^ Charm." — Furthermore,  the  name  of  God  was 
and  is  still  used  as  a  talisman,  charm,  or  protection  against  evil. 
The  Arab  of  to-day  exclaims  "Mushallah" — "What  hath 
God  wrought,"  believing  that  the  mere  mention  of  the  name 
of  God  will  avert  the  evil  eye,  the  eye  of  envy  or  jealousy. 
The  Koran  begins  with  this  clause,  "In  the  name  of  God,  the 
Merciful,  and  Gracious,"  and  often  in  Christian  books  in  the 
Orient  the  first  sentence  runs,  "In  the  name  of  God,  the  Father, 
and  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost."  Oriental  Christians  and 
Moslems  use  the  name  of  God  in  ejaculations.  Thus,  Prof. 
Post  tells  us  sometimes  it  is  with  a  yawn,  or  in  a  fit  of  passion, 
or  to  still  a  noisy  child,  or  to  start  a  donkey,  to  stop  a  mule, 
or  to  hurry  a  workman. 

418.  Prayer. — Prayers,  petitions,  and  appeals  to  God  enter 
into  every  action  and  expression  of  life  in  the  Orient.  It  has 
run  into  superstition,  fanaticism,  and  folly,  as  well  as  wickedness. 
It  still  continues,  as  in  our  Lord's  day,  when  it  called  forth  his 
severe  rebuke  in  respect  to  vain  repetitions.  They  still  think 
they  will  be  heard  for  their  many  and  vain  repetitions.^ 

419.  Gestures  in  Prayer. — Gestures  and  attitudes  in  prayer 
are  a  large  part  of  this  form  of  worship  among  Orientals. 
Thus,  the  Moslem  begins  his  prayer  standing,  then  bows,  then 
kneels,  then  touches  the  earth  with  his  forehead  between  his 
flat  hands.  He  cultivates  the  habit  of  abstraction  in  devotion 
and  prayers.  Many  are  the  cases  recorded  of  those  v.'ho  have 
attained  this  great  power  in  their  worship.  Ayesha,  a  favorite 
wife  of  the  prophet  Mohammed,  said  that  when  she  and  the 
prophet  were  talking  together,  and  the  hour  of  prayer  arrived, 
he  seemed  like  one  who  did  not  know  her,  and  she  as  one  who 
did  not  know  him. 

420.  Praying  in  Public. — Thomson  tells  of  a  Moslem 
spreading  his  cloak  or  Persian  rug  toward  the  south  to  say  or 

>  See  Matt.  6  :  7, 


PRAYERS   AND   VOWS,  281 

perform  prayers  in  public,  amidst  all  the  noise  and  confusion 
of  a  street.  He  first  raises  his  open  hands  till  the  thumbs 
touch  the  ears,  shouting  "  God  is  great  "  and  other  short  peti- 
tions. Then  the  hands  are  folded  together  near  the  girdle, 
and  he  recites  a  passage  of  the  Koran,  then  he  bends  forward, 
resting  his  hands  upon  his  knees,  and  three  times  repeats  a 
formula  of  praise  to  God  most  great.  Again  he  stands  erect, 
crying,  "God  is  great."  He  drops  upon  his  knees  and  bends 
forward  until  his  nose  and  forehead  touch  the  ground  between 
his  expanded  hands,  he  repeats  the  same  phrase  three  times, 
muttering  rapidly  short  formulas  of  prayer  and  praise.  Then 
he  brings  himself  up  upon  his  knees,  and  settles  back  upon  his 
heels,  mumbling  very  sundry  grunts  and  exclamations,  accord- 
ing to  his  taste  and  habit.  He  has  now  completed  one  regular 
Rek'ah.  He  repeats  this  same  process  two  and  sometimes 
three  times,  with  precisely  the  same  postures.  All  this  is  the 
result  of  habit  and  training;  the  smallest  children  will  imitate 
it  to  perfection.  After  all,  there  is  an  air  of  much  solemnity 
in  their  form  of  worship,  especially  in  the  mosques. 

421.  Prayer  by  Moonlight. — Thomson  again  tells  of  having 
heard  the  same  prayers  by  moonlight  on  the  wild  banks  of  the 
river  Orontes,  near  Hamath,  and  these  prayers  were  by  as 
villainous  "a  set  of  robbers  as  ever  could  be  found  in  that  law- 
less region."  In  his  peasant  life  of  Palestine  Grant  tells 
of  the  peasants  and  villagers  going  through  the  exercise  of 
prayer  five  times  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  sometimes  with 
preliminary  bathing,  always  with  the  formulated  utterances 
and  the  prescribed  prostrations.  Even  the  horseman  dis- 
mounts, spreads  his  cloak  for  a  rug,  and  performs  his  devotions.' 
Soldiers  in  the  barracks  offer  prayers.  The  Effendis  pray 
whoever  may  be  about.^  Near  the  springs  at  El-Bireh  are 
small  stone  platforms  for  use  when  the  hour  of  prayer  comes. 

422.  Custom  Universal. — These  customs  are  well-nigh  uni- 
versal in  Asiatic  countries,  extending  through  India,  into 
China,   and   throughout  Central   Asia.     In  Thibet  and  some 

'  Com  p.  Ps.  55  :  17.  *  Corap.  Matt  6:5. 


282  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

mountainous  regions  of  Asia  they  have  reduced  the  matter 
to  a  mechanical  science.  A  small  wheel,  with  flanges  which 
can  be  moved  either  by  wind,  water,  or  by  hand,  is  set  up. 
On  the  flanges  are  written  prayers,  and  the  motion  of  this 
wheel  is  supposed  to  confer  the  same  merit  as  reciting  the 
prayers  by  him  who  sets  it  in  motion.  Another  form  is  that 
of  an  egg-shaped  barrel  upon  a  spindle,  composed  of  endless 
sheets  of  paper  pasted  one  over  the  other,  with  a  different 
prayer  written  on  each  sheet.  At  the  bottom  of  this  barrel  is 
a  cord,  which  gives  a  rotary  motion  to  it,  like  that  of  a  child's 
whirligig.  It  is  made  to  spin  rapidly,  and  thus  the  person 
who  plies  this  prayer-mill  gains  all  the  merit  of  the  prayers 
written  on  all  the  papers  at  ever}'  revolution  of  the  barrel. 
Buddhists  and  monks  in  monasteries  used  to  have  portable 
ones  by  which  they  performed  their  devotions.* 

423.  Prayer  Beads  and  Cylinders. — Dr.  Allen  tells  of  a  mode 
of  praying  in  India  in  which  the  worshiper  assumes  a  specified 
attitude,  carefully  adjusting  his  feet,  hands,  eyes,  and  body  to 
meditate  upon  some  god  whose  name  is  repeated  in  prayer. 
To  aid  him  in  this  he  has  a  string  of  fifty  to  one  hundred  beads, 
pearls,  or  berries,  and  each  time  a  prayer  or  the  god's  name 
is  repeated  a  bead  is  removed,  so  he  knows  when  the  intended 
number  of  repetitions  is  completed.  Many  hours  are  often  spent 
at  this  exercise,  and  the  practice  reaches  back  many  centuries. 
No  wonder  the  Saviour  forbid  these  vain  repetitions.^  Sir 
Monier-Monier  Williams  saw  a  hideous  old  woman  sitting  on 
the  groimd  inside  the  entrance  to  a  Buddhist  temple,  revolving 
a  prayer  cylinder  by  means  of  a  cord  in  one  hand.  He  also 
tells  us  the  Thibetans  have  a  prayer  of  six  syllables,  and  no 
other  prayer  is  repeated  so  often  by  human  beings  in  any 
quarter  of  the  globe  as  is  this  mystic  form.  It  is  put  on  a  roll 
or  rolls  and  placed  within  a  cylinder,  which  is  made  to  revolve, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  the  same  eflBcacy  as  if  the  prayer  was 
actually  spoken.  Each  revolution  of  the  cylinder  is  credited 
as  merit,  storing  so  much  prayer  force  for  the  benefit  of  the 

'  Lyman  Abbott,  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledge.  '  Matt.  6  :  7. 


PRAYERS  AND   VOWS.  283 

person  who  revolves  the  cylinder  or  has  it  done  for  him. 
Williams  also  describes  large  barrel-like  cylinders  set  up  close 
to  each  other  in  a  row  at  the  entrance  of  a  Buddhist  temple  in 
Darjiling.  No  one  could  pass  without  giving  them  a  twirl,  and 
by  a  sweep  of  the  hand  he  might  set  them  all  twirling  at  once. 

424.  Repetitions. — Lane  tells  of  a  worshiper  standing  vdth 
his  face  toward  Mecca,  his  feet  close  together,  saying  inaudibly 
prayers  of  so  many  rek'ahs  of  the  prescribed  number.  He 
found  there  were  differences  in  the  attitudes  of  the  four  great 
sects  of  Moslems  during  prayer.  He  notes  seventeen  different 
postures  in  one  prayer  course.  The  prayers  are  said  as  nearly 
as  possible  at  the  time  prescribed.  They  may  be  said  after 
that  time,  but  not  before.  They  consist  largely  in  repetitions, 
"God  is  most  great,"  "No  God  but  God  and  Mohammed, 
his  Apostle,"  "The  absolute  glory  of  God,"  "The  eternal  one," 
"The  desired,"  "The  existing,"  "The  single,"  "The  supreme," 
"There  is  none  like  God,"  "The  bountiful,"  and  similar 
phrases  are  repeated  over  and  over  again  in  the  prayers. 
Meanwhile  the  worshiper  is  constantly  changing  his  posture, 
swaying  his  body,  or  bowing  to  the  ground,  then  standing  up 
and  bowing  again.  Among  the  most  devout,  if  there  is  any 
wandering  of  the  eyes  or  mind,  a  cough,  or  an  answering  of 
a  question,  the  worshiper  must  begin  over  again,  and  repeat 
all  his  prayers  with  due  reverence.  It  is  counted  very  sinful 
to  interrupt  a  man  engaged  in  devotion. 

425.  At  Mosque. — On  preparations  for  prayer,  Dr.  Trum- 
bull tells  how  his  dragoman  in  a  mosque  went  to  the  fountain, 
and  vdth  special  ejaculations  washed  his  hands  three  times 
in  the  name  of  "God,  the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful." 
Then  he  rinsed  his  mouth  three  times  vdth  similar  ejacula- 
tions, his  nostrils,  his  ears,  his  face,  his  head,  his  neck,  his 
right  hand,  and  his  left  hand,  his  right  foot,  and  his  left  foot, 
each  three  times,  with  the  same  ejaculations  repeated  three 
times. 

426.  Order  a  Merit. — His  prayer  is  vdth  his  face  toward 
Mecca,  his  feet  close  together,  his  hands  open  and  uplifted, 


284  ORIENTALISMS  IN  BIBLE  LANDS. 

bowing,  kneeling,  and  prostrating  himself  in  succession.  If 
he  made  any  slip  in  the  prescribed  number  of  washings  or 
ejaculations,  or  the  order  of  them,  his  entire  prayer  was  nul- 
lified and  must  all  be  done  over  again.  In  the  desert  where 
no  water  could  be  obtained  he  could  use  sand  in  place  of 
water  for  ceremonial  cleansing.  Allusions  to  these  cere- 
monials and  forms  are  frequently  found  in  Scripture.^ 

427.  Prayer  Places. — On  places  for  prayer,  Prof.  Grant 
tells  of  mothers  praying  at  shrines  and  sacred  trees  for  their 
sick  children,  and  of  tying  bits  of  rag  to  keep  the  prayers  in 
the  minds  of  the  saints.^  At  Ram-Allah  the  women  go  to  a 
kibleh — prayer  place — to  offer  prayers  to  Ibrahim,  Khalil- 
Allah — Abraham,  friend  of  God — for  the  recovery  of  a  sick 
child.  They  also  pray  at  these  places  for  offspring.  The 
natives  pray  for  rain,  and  often  see  in  any  long  drought,  or 
any  great  flood,  or  any  marked  and  strange  weather  change 
a  heavenly  sign  of  some  great  portent,  possibly  the  return  of 
the  Messiah. 

428.  Prayer  Postures. — Various  postures  in  prayer  have  been 
common  in  the  East  from  the  earliest  times.  Abraham's  ser- 
vant bowed  down  his  head  and  worshiped  Jehovah.'  Joshua 
prostrated  himself  and  "fell  to  the  earth  upon  his  face"  in 
prayer.*  David,  on  the  other  hand,  prayed  sitting  on  the 
ground  before  Jehovah.^  Solomon  prayed  standing  before 
the  altar  of  Jehovah,  and  "spread  forth  his  hands  toward 
heaven."'  Yet  Daniel  '^kneeled  upon  his  knees  three  times  a 
day,  and  prayed,"  his  window  being  open  toward  Jerusalem.' 
Nehemiah  seems  to  have  uttered  short  ejaculatory  prayers 
while  engaged  in  temporal  business.* 

429.  Dervishes. — "Dervish"  is  a  Persian  word,  meaning 
"the  sill  of  the  door,"  that  is,  those  who  beg  from  door  to  door. 

'  Compare  Gen.  32  :  25;  Ex.  29  :  19-31;  Lev.  8  :  30;  Eccles.  0  :  10;  Isa.  6  :  7;  Jer.  i  :  g; 
Matt.  8  :  15;  9  :  20;  Mark  7  :  33;  Luke  22  :  51;  Johii  12  :  j.  On  postures  also,  compare 
Gen.  17  :  3;  i8  :  22;  24  :  4S;  Num.  16  :  22;  Josh.  5  :  14;  i  Kings  8:22;!  Chron.  21  :  16;  2 
Chron.  6  :  13;  Ezra  9  :  5;  Ps.  95  :  6;  Matt.  17  :  14;  Luke  22  :  41;  Acts  7  :  60;  9  :  40;  20  :  36; 
31  :  5- 

^  Grant,  p.  93.  »  Gen.  24  :  26.  *  Tosh.  7  :  6. 

•  2  Sam.  7  :  18.  •  i  Kings  8:22.  '  Dan.  6  :  10. 

•See  Neb.  »  :  4;  s  :  10;  compare  Dan.  6  :  jo  with  Ps.  55  :  17. 


PRAYERS  AND   VOWS.  285 

The  equivalent  Arabic  word  is  "fakir."  They  are  different 
from  the  ulemas,  being  a  religious  order,  but  there  are  various 
numbers  of  these  dervishes  or  fakirs  belonging  to  no  society, 
who  are  simply  mendicants  or  devotees,  existing  by  profes- 
sional jugglery  throughout  Turkey,  Egypt,  Persia,  Ilindustan, 
and  Central  Asia.  There  are  numerous  classes  of  them 
among  the  Buddhists  as  well  as  among  the  Moslems.  They 
boast  of  the  saying  of  the  prophet  "Poverty  is  my  pride." 

430.  At  Prayer. — These  various  postures  in  prayer  run  into 
fanatical  extremes,  and  have  developed  certain  Oriental  holy 
men,  known  as  dervishes.  There  are  several  classes,  the  danc- 
ing, whirling,  and  howUng  kind.  They  wander  over  the 
country,  and  exhibit  their  exercise  on  Fridays  (the  Moslem 
Sunday)  in  the  open  air  or  in  halls,  attracting  persons  of  all 
classes  and  all  lands  to  see  them.  Mr.  Basmajian,  a  native 
Armenian,  describes  the  howling  class  as  consisting  of  a  score 
of  holy  men,  who  begin  by  a  most  slow  motion,  shouting  the 
name  of  God  so  vnldly  that  their  voices  lose  all  semblance  of 
human  sound.  When  thoroughly  excited,  streams  of  sweat 
roll  dovm  their  faces,  their  eyes  roll,  their  tongues  hang  out, 
while  they  gasp  for  breath;  their  chins  fall  loosely  on  their 
breasts,  their  hands  hang  from  their  shoulders,  and  they 
become  motionless.  After  a  few  minutes  of  deep  silence,  a 
sobbing  is  heard,  which  swells  and  spreads,  till  the  whole 
company  of  dervishes  is  sobbing,  and  the  sobs  deepen  into 
a  low  cry,  and  the  low  cry  into  a  wild  burst  of  grief.  Tears 
roll  down  their  faces  and  the  breasts  of  the  sobbing  crowd 
are  wet  with  weeping.^ 

431.  Beggar  Dervishes. — Van  Lennep  tells  of  the  beggar  class 
of  dervishes,  who  claim  charity  as  a  right,  and  are  the  most 
impudent  beggars  in  the  world,  inviting  themselves  into  the 
houses,  and  at  the  tables  of  the  rich,  who  dare  not  be  rude  to 
them  for  fear  of  the  common  people,  who  venerate  them. 
They  are  usually  filthy,  covered  with  rags.  They  often  carry 
odd  and  strange  articles  to  draw  attention,  such  as  the  bone 

>  Religious  and  Social  Life  in  tlie  Orient,  Basmajian,  p.  122. 


286  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

of  a  sawfish.  During  battles  in  war  time  these  dervishes 
follow  the  army  like  a  pack  of  hyenas,  killing  and  plundering 
those  of  the  enemy  left  wounded  upon  the  field.  They  are 
proud  of  some  unusual  article  of  dress,  like  a  curious  cap  or  fez. 
They  carry  a  steel  rod,  about  two  feet  long,  with  a  curved 
cross-piece  at  one  end,  on  vv^hich  they  rest  in  sleeping,  espe- 
cially if  they  have  made  a  vow  not  to  lie  down  during  the  month 
of  Ramadan.  Or  they  wear  a  leopard's  skin,  like  the  ancient 
Egyptian  priests.  Probably  some  of  the  false  prophets  among 
the  Hebrews  were  of  this  class  of  begging  dervishes.^ 

432.  Howling  Dervishes. — Van  Lennep  describes  the  howl- 
ing dervishes  which  he  saw,  who  commonly  met  on  Tuesdays 
and  Thursdays  in  the  evening.  They  would  sit  upon  the  floor 
in  a  circle,  the  chief  having  a  little  mattress,  slighdy  raised 
above  the  rest.  They  began  their  devotions  by  chanting  and 
recitations,  pronouncing  ninety  times  each  of  the  ninety-nine 
names  of  the  deit}%  bowing  the  head  every  time,  while  the 
chief  counted  the  numbers  on  a  long  string  of  beads.  As 
they  go  on  they  become  more  and  more  excited,  bowing  lower 
and  lower,  until  they  come  to  the  last  and  greatest  name,  "Hoo." 
Then  they  spring  to  their  feet,  hold  each  other's  hands,  and 
begin  to  dance  in  a  circle  in  a  most  frantic  manner,  bending 
their  bodies  double,  then  raising  them,  and  bending  them 
backward,  crying  in  unison,  "Hoo,  hoo."  Soon  they  pull 
off  their  upper  garments,  leaving  their  chests  bare,  drop  their 
caps  or  turbans,  and  as  they  never  shave  their  heads  nor  cut 
their  hair,  their  locks  now  fly  loosely  about  their  faces  and 
shoulders.  Some  one  outside  the  circle  strikes  the  timbrel, 
beating  time,  which  adds  to  the  excitement.  The  devotees 
perspire  at  every  pore,  their  cries  grow  frantic,  but  ere  long 
they  faint  with  exhaustion;  the  sound  gradually  dies  away  in 
a  groan,  until  they  drop  one  by  one,  apparently  more  dead 
than  alive,  as  if  they  had  fallen  in  a  fit. 

433.  ^^ Dancing"  Dervishes. — The  Old  Testament  has  allu- 
sions to  scenes  something  like  this  in  religious  services,  which 

'  See  I  Kings  22  :  12. 


PRAYERS   AND   VOWS.  287 

are  designated  as  dancing.'  These  modem  dervishes  also 
have  other  fanatical  performances,  calling  upon  God,  and 
cutting  themselves  with  knives  and  swords  so  that  the  blood 
runs,  piercing  their  nearly  naked  bodies  with  wooden  or  iron 
spikes,  from  which  they  hang  small  mirrors.  Exhausted 
with  pain  and  loss  of  blood,  they  faint  away.  Thus,  the 
priests  of  Baal  called  out  and  cut  themselves  in  the  scene  at 
Mt.  Carmel  when  contending  with  Elijah.^  The  Hebrew 
seemed  to  have  been  carried  away  with  this  excitement,  though 
it  was  expressly  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law.^  Van  Lennep 
would  trace  some  resemblance  between  the  modem  dervish 
association  and  the  early  schools  of  the  prophets  over  which 
Samuel  presided,  but  this  is  open  to  question.* 

434.  Mystics. — The  orders  of  dervishes  are  supposed  to 
have  sprung  from  a  class  of  mystics  who  were  followers  of  the 
prophet.  They  sprang  up  about  the  twelfth  century.  At 
first  it  is  said  that  great  thinkers  and  poets,  particularly  among 
the  Persians,  joined  this  movement,  but  the  dervishes  have 
degenerated  now.  The  soul  of  the  early  movement  is  gone, 
and  nothing  remains  but  the  external  mechanism  of  worship, 
the  throwing  of  one's  self  into  ecstasy,  and  rendering  the  body 
insusceptible  to  external  impressions.  The  Orientals,  how- 
ever, venerate  these  dervishes  just  as  they  do  insane  persons, 
and  by  some  they  are  reputed  to  be  able  to  work  miracles.'' 

'  See  I  Sam.  10  :  5,  6;  19  :  23,  24.  -  i  Kings  18  :  28  ff. 

5  See  Jer.  41  :  5  compared  with  Lev.  ip  ■  28  and  Deut.  14  •  i. 

*  For  a  full  graphic  description  of  the  various  classes  of  dervishes,  see  E.  W.  Lane, 
"Modem  Egyptians."  'See  Baedeker's  Palestine,  p.  72. 


XXXVII. 


OFFERINGS   AND   SACRIFICES. 


435.  Votive  Offerings. — Offerings,  sacrifices,  and  votive  gifts 
were,  and  are  still,  common  to  all  Oriental  religions.  The 
origin  of  this  custom  is  hidden  in  obscurity.  They  were  doubt- 
less prompted  by  a  divinely  planted  impulse  in  the  human 
soul  to  recover  lost  friendship  v%'ith  God.  Covenants,  vows, 
offerings,  sacrifices,  and  votive  gifts  are  only  different  expres- 
sions of  man's  desire  to  put  himself  right  with  God.  The 
offering  or  sacrifice  seemed  a  fitting  seal  to  a  covenant  of  peace 
and  friendship.  Such  a  contract  seemed  to  call  for  an  added 
assurance,  a  solemn  oath  or  attestation  indicating  that  it  would 
be  religiously  kept.  The  idea  was  deeply  ingrained  in  the 
Oriental  mind  that  the  gods  as  well  as  kings  are  influenced 
by  offerings  and  sacrifices.  Homer  thus  represents  his  heroes 
and  divinities. 

436.  Thanksgiving. — In  the  early  dav/n  of  human  history 
votive  offerings  were  made  out  of  gratitude.  Thus,  the  ances- 
tors of  the  Greek,  made  such  offerings  as  a  form  of  thanks  for 
protection.  In  successful  war  the  spoils  were  often  given  as 
votive  offerings  for  the  success.  Similar  expressions,  called 
votive  tablets,  were  put  up  in  the  temples  for  success  in  war, 
recovery  from  sickness,  escape  from  peril  by  sea,  or  for  any 
remarkable  prosperity  or  rescue  in  adversity.  The  Hebrew 
had  a  rule  not  to  appear  before  Jehovah  empt}^  handed.^ 

437.  Of  Fruits,  etc. — Early  sacrifices  in  the  Orient  were,  for 
the  most  part,  of  fruits,  grain,  and  later,  of  flocks  and  herds. 
The  earlier  races  do  not  seem  to  have  had  a  keen  sense  of  sin 
or  any  fixed  standard  of  virtue.  The  distinctions  between 
right  and  wrong  were  not  marked,  or  very  thin.  In  India 
sacrifices  of  animals  among  Buddhists  were  not  practiced, 
no  trees  were  cut  down,  but  libations  of  milk,  oil,  and  honey 

•  See  Ex.  23  :  15. 
288 


OFFERINGS   AND   SACRIFICES.  289 

were  offered.  In  China  and  Eastern  Asia  the  animals  sacri- 
ficed were  those  used  for  food,  as  cows,  sheep,  hares,  deer, 
and  pigs.  They  were  slain  on  the  east  side  of  the  altar.  The 
hair  and  blood  were  buried,  possibly  for  the  use  of  the  spirits 
of  the  earth ;  the  dead  ancestors  were  invited  to  the  feasts. 

In  the  Acadian  times  there  is  a  legend  in  which  it  is  said 
that  the  father  was  required  to  give  the  life  of  his  child  for  the 
sin  of  his  soul— child's  head  for  his  head,  child's  neck  for  his 
neck,  child's  breast  for  his  breast. 

438.  In  India. — Many  modern  religious  customs,  the  pos- 
sible survival  of  ancient  forms,  are  still  current  in  Oriental 
lands.  Thus,  Dr.  Allen  tells  of  tribes  in  northern  Madras,  a 
province  of  India,  who  offer  sacrifices  of  men  and  animals  to 
the  great  earth  goddess.  She  was  believed  to  be  the  goddess 
of  the  seasons,  sending  rain,  causing  seed  to  grow,  fields  to  be 
fruitful  or  barren,  people  to  be  in  health  or  sick,  just  as  it 
pleased  her.  There  was  no  image  made  of  her  nor  any  temple 
built  to  her.  Nor  was  she  conceived  of  as  having  a  fixed 
bodily  form.  She  was  thought  to  be  able  to  assume  any  form 
at  pleasure. 

439.  Vicarious. — The  idea  of  vicarious  sacrifice  and  suffer- 
ing is  strongly  entrenched  in  the  Oriental  mind.  All  forms 
of  offices  and  crimes  are  included  in  this  idea.  Even  a  human 
life  can  be  thus  paid  for  by  some  sort  of  vicarious  sacrifice, 
either  in  money  or  some  other  form  of  substitutionary  rec- 
ompense. This  illustrates  the  substitution  of  an  animal 
for  a  human  life,  as  in  the  case  of  Abraham  offering  a  ram 
for  his  son  Isaac.^  These  peculiar  offerings,  that  is,  the 
demand  of  a  life  sacrifice,  to  atone  for  some  offense  or  act  that 
had  broken  friendship,  are  widespread  among  all  Oriental 
religions.  The  life  of  the  animal  was  substituted  in  place  of 
the  life  of  the  owner,  as  shown  also  by  putting  hands  on  the 
animal.^ 

440.  To  .Sa/n^5.— Burckhardt  tells  us  that  sacrifices  in  honor 

'  Oen.  22  :  1-13.  _  ^ 

*  Compare  Gen.  4  :  4  with  22  :  2-14;  Lev.  4  :  4.  iS.  24.  29,  33;  16  :  21;  Deut.  21  :  O. 

19 


290  ORIENTALISMS   IN   BIBLE   LANDS. 

of  saints  at  their  tombs  are  common  among  nearly  all  Bedouin 
tribes.  Major  Conder  found  that  the  influence  of  some  great 
leader  or  sheikh  was  supposed  to  extend  for  twenty  miles 
around  his  tomb.  A  hilltop  out  of  Gaza,  to  which  Samson 
is  believed  to  have  carried  the  gates  of  that  city,  is  still  a  place 
for  votive  or  rehgious  offerings.  The  daughters  of  Israel  went 
yearly,  four  days  a  year,  to  commemorate  the  memory  of 
Jephthah's  daughter  in  a  similar  manner.^ 

441.  Sacrifice,  Ccvenant. — Sacrifice  is  thus  a  common  relig- 
ious act,  applying  to  many  transactions  and  events  of  life.  It 
is  more  than  simply  a  part  of  worship.  Killing  a  lamb  is  an 
Oriental  act  of  hospitality  to  honor  a  guest,  and  is  called 
sacrificing.  The  most  common  way  of  confirming  a  covenant 
and  agreement  between  two  parties,  man  and  man,  is  to  offer 
a  sacrifice,  or  have  a  sacrificial  feast.  Any  occasion  of  unusual 
joy  or  gladness  is  commonly  counted  poorly  or  imperfectly 
celebrated,  if  not  observed  by  a  similar  sacrifice  of  a  lamb 
or  some  clean  animal.  It  is  a  universal  custom  to  have  such 
a  sacrifice  in  the  Orient  at  betrothals  and  at  wedding  feasts. 
The  custom  is  widespread  throughout  all  Oriental  lands  now, 
and  is  as  old  as  the  history  of  the  Oriental  races. 

442.  Meditation. — The  Hindu  seeker  after  God  gives  him- 
self up  to  days  and  weeks  of  meditation,  being  dimly  conscious 
in  these  states  of  something  which  the  earth,  the  heavens,  and 
the  power  and  grandeur  of  nature  fail  to  reveal  to  the  soul. 
There  is  beyond  these,  and  beyond  the  scattered  glories  of  the 
visible  world,  something  real,  though  mystic,  yet  unspeakably 
greater.  It  may  lead  him  on  to  austere  mortification  of  his 
physical  self,  and  through  a  conceived  series  of  future  penal 
existences  to  an  eternal  blessedness,  supposed  to  be  attained 
by  absorption  in  supreme  spirit.  In  contrast  with  this  is  the 
meditation  of  the  prophets  and  Hebrew  psalmists,  whose 
blessedness  is  attained  by  a  perfection  of  the  individual  soul 
in  communion  \n\h  the  ineffable  and  eternal  Spirit. 

The  soul  at  such  times,  with  its  windows  open  toward  heaven, 

'  Judg.  i6  :  3;  II  :  39,  40. 


OFFERINGS   AND   SACRIFICES.  29 1 

full  of  hope  and  promise,  and  full  of  blessedness,  is  led  to  ex- 
claim as  the  vision  fades:  "Surely  the  Lord  is  in  this  place; 
and  I  knew  it  not.  .  .  .  This  is  none  other  but  the  house  of 
God,  and  this  is  the  gate  of  heaven."^ 

443.  Conclusion. — All  the  great  religions  of  the  world  arose 
in  the  Orient.  The  Oriental  may  be  a  mystic,  but  no  skeptic; 
he  may  be  visionary,  but  he  never  loses  faith  in  God.  He  may 
be  formal  in  worship,  inconsistent  in  life,  and  debased  in 
morals,  but  he  clings  to  the  hope  of  an  ideal,  divine,  and 
invisible  Being.  In  radical  contrast  with  the  scientific  and 
severely  practical  Occidental  mind,  the  Oriental  clings  to  this 
belief  in  God  the  invisible,  and  in  his  dominion  over  all  human 
events.  This  characteristic  consciousness  of  the  reality  of 
an  unseen  power,  this  \dvid  conception  of  his  universal  presence, 
this  wealth  of  poetic  portrayal,  this  idiomatic  and  figurative 
expression  of  spiritual  truths,  through  which  the  Bible  came 
to  man,  would  seem  peculiarly  to  fit  the  Oriental  mind  for 
reinterpreting  its  marvelous  revelation  more  accurately  and 
clearly  to  the  whole  human  race.     This  may  come  some  day. 

Meanwhile,  the  great  lessons  God  would  teach  the  West, 
through  this  His  supreme  revelation  of  the  supreme  religion, 
may  be  more  accurately  understood,  and  become  more  im- 
pressively the  Word  of  God  to  our  souls,  if  we  read  them  in 
the  light  of  the  Oriental  Hfe  out  of  which  they  came. 

>  Gen.  28  :  17;  see  Gen.  24  :  6;  Josh.  1:8;  Ps.  1  :  2;  5  :  i;  19  :  14;  49  :  3;  63  :  6; 
77  :  12;  104  :  34;  119  :  15,  23,  48,  78,  97,  99, 148;  Amos  4  :  13;  Deut.  6  :  7;  E.x.  13  :  8,  9, 14. 


INDEX. 


Aba,  "cloak,"  105. 

Abba,  "father,"  13. 

Accompanying  the  departing  guest,   75. 

African  dress,  107. 

warriors,  204. 

Agreements  not  binding,  273. 

Allen,  Dr.  D.  O.,  on  small-jxix,  116;  music 
in  India,  2ig;shops,  237;  prayer 
beads  in  India,  282;  sacrifices, 
289. 

Allotted  land,  129. 

Ameer  Ali,  Justice,  on  degradation  of 
women,  64. 

Animal  sacrifice,  288. 

Anointing  guests,  89. 

Apartments  of  house,  71,  247. 

. of  tent,  241,  242. 

Apples,  145,  156. 

Apricot,  156. 

Arab  hospitality,  84. 

songs,  223. 

tent  furniture,  245. 

warriors,  202. 

Arts  and  trades.  208-212. 

Assemblage,  public,  69. 

Athletic  games,  50. 


Babe,  The,  43,  45,  46. 

,  how  carried,  46,  66. 

Backshish,  "gift,"  49,  267,  271. 
Bactrian  camel,  182. 
Baking,  97,  98. 

Baldensperger,  P.  J.,  on  names,  45;  leprosy, 
112;  eye  disease,   115;  religious 
belief  of  Orientals,  275. 
Ball  games,  50. 
Barber-doctors,  113. 
"Bargain  counter."  215,  233. 

shop,"  215,  233. 

Bargains,  215- 
Barley  cake,  137. 

harvest,  136-138. 

Bartering,  232,  257. 

Baskets,  216. 

Basmajian,  K.  H.,  on  "howling"  dervishes, 

285. 
Bazaars,  233. 
Beads,  prayer,  282. 
Bedouins,  240. 


Beds,  252. 

Beggar  dervishes,  285. 
BcKging,  116,  249,  28s. 
Belief  in  unseen,  274- 

religious,  272,  274- 


Betrothal,  16-23. 

Black  sheep  and  goats,  167. 

Bliss,  F.  J.,  on  mourning,  118;  granaries, 
143;  storehouses,  260. 

Blood  feuds,  14. 

Body,  preparation  of,  for  burial,   121-123 

Bodyguard,  203. 

Bonar,  Andrew  A.,  on  use  of  milk,  95; 
Arab  songs,  223;  outside  stair- 
case, 255;  khan,  2S6. 

Books,  228. 

Bottles,  155,  156. 

Bravery  of  shepherds,  162. 

Bread,  96-99. 

Bribes,  268.       • 

Bricks,  248,  252. 

Bridal  costumes,  24. 

processions,  24-30. 


Broad-tailed  sheep,  164. 

Brown,  Arthur  J.,  on  curiosity  of  Korean 

women,  no. 
Bruce,   James,    on    anointing    guests,    89; 

bottles,  151;. 
Buchanan,  Claudius,  on  book  of  the  law, 

India,  228. 
Buckingham,    J.    S.,   on   khans,   91,    256; 

making  butter,  96;   tents,  241. 
Buffalo,  176,  177- 
Building  materials,  247.  248. 
Burckhardt,  J.     L.,     on     hospitality,    82; 
nutrition,  98;  camel  skin  bottles, 
156;  camps,  243;  sacrifices  for 
saints,  289. 
Burder,  Samuel,  on  anointing  guests,  59- 
Burial,  121-136. 
Butter,  95,  96. 

Buying  and  selling,  215,  232-238,  257- 
land,  128. 


CAFfs,  235- 
Camel,  182,  192-195- 
Camps,  241,  243,  244. 
Captives,  207. 
Caravan,  igi. 


298 


294 


INDEX. 


Caravansary,  go,  256.     (See  Inn,  Khan.) 

Care  of  floci-.s,  160. 

Carob  pod  and  tree,  99,  156. 

Carpenters,  210. 

Carriages,  179. 

Carts,  179. 

Cast-net,  184. 

Cattle  ana  camels,  176-178,  182,  183. 

Cave  dwellers,  2,59,  240. 

Chains  and  mirrors,  109. 

Chaplin,   Br.    1'.,    on    woman    yoked    to 

plough,  68. 
Characteristics  of  soldiers,  207. 
Chardin,  Sir  John,  on  wedding  garment, 

35;  Eastern  grief,  119. 
Cheese  of  goats'  milk,  169. 
Chief  dish,  102. 
Child  culture,  52. 

growth,  46. 

Childlessness,  40. 

Children,  14,  43-50,  53,  60,  198. 

Child's  education,  47. 

games,  49,  50. 

plays,  49-51- 

Cipher  characters,  227. 

Climate,  129. 

Code  of  Hammurabi,  23,  37,  39,  41,  65. 

Coins,  string  of,  106. 

used  in  buying  and  selling,  216,  234. 

Conclusion,  291. 
Concubinage,  40. 
Conder,  C.  R.,  on  woman  yoked  to  plough, 

68;  influence  of  sheikh,  290. 
Congratulations,  marriage,  33. 
Contract,  marriage,  18. 
Conversation,  73. 
Cooking,  99. 
Costumes,  bridal,  24. 

healthful,  105. 

Collier  princirle,  Iind  rental,  265. 
Court  of  Eastern  house,  33,  250. 
Courtship  not  necessary,  12,  13. 
Covenant,  brotherhood,  154. 

,  pence,  205. 

with  God,  275. 

Crafts,  208-212. 
Credit,  234. 

Cries  and  dirpres,  119,  125. 
Crim.in-ds,  268,  270,  271. 
Curiosity  of  Orientals,  88,  no. 
Custom  not  law  rules,  263. 
Customs  overturned,  11. 
Cutting  of  flesh  forbidden,  125. 


Dagger,  203. 
Dancing  dervishes,  286. 
Date  palm,  156. 
DaxKsrhters  not  welcome,  43. 
Death,  117-126. 

s'-riek,  118. 

Deht  universal,  234,  269. 
Debtors,  260. 

De^adation  of  women,  63-68. 
Delays  in  social  intercourse,  78. 


Demon  possession,  113. 

Dervishes,  2S4-287. 

Detaining  guests,  74. 

Devoutness,  272,  274,  276,  279,  283. 

Dibs,  100,  152,  154. 

Diet  and  meals,  loi. 

Dining  furniture,  102. 

Dirges,  119,  125. 

Discuses  and  medicine,  111-116. 

Dishes  for  food,  102. 

Display  in  worship,  273. 

of  wedding  gilts,  31,  32,  36. 

Distance  computed  by  hours,  195. 

Divine  right  of  rulers,  262. 

Divorce,  41,  66,  67. 

Doctors,  III,  113,  116. 

Dog,  shepherd,  113,  166. 

Doors,  250,  251. 

Dowry,  19-23. 

Dragnet,  185. 

Dragoman,  244. 

Drake,    C.    F.   T.,   on   Syrian   troglodytes 

(cave  dwellers),  239;  jeilahin,  240. 
Drawnet,  185. 

Dress  and  ornaments,  105-110. 
Dried  grapes,  153. 
Drinking  in  the  East,  100. 
Dromedary,  182,  194,  195. 
Drudi?e,  woman  a,  68. 
Dwellings,  239-255- 
Dwight,   Chas.  A.  S.,  on  drinking  in  the 

East,  100. 


Earrings,  ioq. 
Eating  and  meals,  65,  93-104. 
Ecclesiastical  orr-anizations.  277. 
Education  of  children,  47,  52-5S. 
Edwards,  Amelia  B.,  on  death  shriek,  118. 
Eggplant,  09- 

Egyptian  bridal  procession,  26. 
houses,  248,  252. 


Embalming,  122. 

Embrace,  Oriental,  75. 

Encampments,  243,  244. 

Enemies  as  guests,  82. 

Entrance  to  houses,  250. 

Etiquette  strict,  79. 

Evil  spirits,  in. 

Ewing,  William,  on  travelers  as  "guests  of 

God,"  93. 
Exemption  from  duties,  bridegroom's,  23. 
Extortions,  26S,  269. 
Eye  disease,  113. 


Fairs,  237,  257. 
Fakir,  or  dervish,  285. 
Family,  The,  n-23. 

tent,  241. 

Farming,  132-144. 
Father,  12-14. 
Fe-'sts,  m''rri^ee,  31-38. 
Fed  by  strangers,  92. 


INDEX. 


29 


Fdlahin,  240. 

Fellows,  Sir  Charles,  on  hospitality,  91. 

Fertility  of  the  soil,  130,  136. 

Feuds,  14. 

Firk'ee,  "schoolmaster,"  22,  52. 

Fighting,  202-207. 

Figs,  137,  145-147.  150. 

Finn,  Mrs.  E.  A.,  on  ligs,  147. 

Fish,  Di.  H.  C,  on  capturing  the  bride,  36; 

khans,  91,  258;  figs,  147. 
Fish  laws,  1S7. 

Fishing  and  hunting,  184-190. 
Fisk,  Pliny,  on  use  of  goats'  skins,  155. 
"Fitclies,"  97. 
Flocks,  159-175. 
Flour  unbolted,  97. 
Flowers,  133. 
Foe-guest,  82. 
Food  of  modem  Egyptians,  95. 

Oriental,  99. 

Footman,  201. 

Forming  the  family,  11-23. 

Friendship,  token  of,  93. 

frugality  of  soldiers,  207. 

Fruits,  133.  145-147.  150-153.  156,  157- 

Furniture,  dining,  102. 

of  tent,  245. 


Games,  child's,  50. 

Garment,  wedding,  34. 

Gates,  251. 

Gestures  m  salutation,  81, 

in  prayer,  280. 

Gifts,  wedding,  16,  36. 

Girdle,  106. 

and  staff,  199. 

Girls'  training,  48. 

Gleaning,  139. 

Goats,  167-171. 

Goatskins,  168. 

Going  with  guest,  75. 

Goldsmiths,  210,  213. 

"Grace"  in  salutation,  80. 

Graded  system,  Hebrew,  54. 

Grain,  94.  132,  133.  136-144- 

■ pits,  98. 

Granaries,  143,  260. 

Grant,  Prof.  Elilu,  on  precessions,  24; 
guests,  74:  greeting,  75;  egg- 
plant, 9q;  locuFts,  100;  di.se.'ses, 
111;  burial,  121;  Syrian  shop, 
232;  "bargaining,"  233;  con- 
science of  Orientals,  276;  re- 
ligious membership,  276;  pray- 
ers, 281;  places  for  prayer,  ■284. 

Grapes,  137,  151-154- 

Great  feasts,  31. 

Greeting  and  parting,  72,  74. 

Griffis,  Dr.  Wm.  E.,  on  Japanese  writing, 
231;  Japanese  shops,  236. 

Groves  as  c?mp  sites,  244. 

Growth  of  child,  46. 

Guest,  70-76,  82-90,  103. 

Gi'est-room,  87.  253- 

Guilds,  labor,  212,  214. 


Haddad,  J.T.,on  marriage  processions,  25, 
28;  marriage  feasts,  31;  guests, 
71,  75;  leprosy,  in,  112,  114; 
siiepherds  as  doctors,  113;  medi- 
cine-man, 115;  abundance  of 
harvests,  136;  olives,  147;  wine- 
vat,  152;  care  of  flocks,  160; 
flesli  of  goats,  169;  master  crafts- 
rnan,  213;  writing,  225;  tradi- 
tions, 227;  records,  227;  houses 
in  SjTia,  24S;  roofs  of  houses, 
249;  storercoms,  260:  taxation 
for  road-building,  263;  extor- 
tions, 269. 

Hakim,  "medicine-man,"  111,  115. 

Hammurabi,  Code  of,  23,  37,  39,  41,  65. 

Hanauer,  J.  £.,  on  Eshcol  vineyards,  152; 
sheepfolds,  163;  Syrian  sheep,  167. 

Harmer,  Thoma.s,  on  nose  rings,  109;  leather 
bottles,  155;  runners  (footmen),  201. 

Hartley,    Rev.    J.,    on    treading    grain    in 
Greece,  142;  Greek  rolls  (books),  228. 

Harvest,  136-140. 

Hauran,  bridal  procession  in,  25. 

Head-dress,  106. 

Hebrew  graded  system,  54. 

tent  life,  243. 

women,  64. 


Hebrevs  loyil  to  old  customs,  15. 
Henderson,  Ebenezer,  on  Russian  marriage 

procession,  29. 
Herds,  131,  176. 

Hilprecht,  H.  V.,  on  hospitality,  87. 
Hindu  education,  57. 

musical  scale,  218. 

religious  beliefs,  290. 

sleeping  customs,  255. 


Holy  men,  273. 

Honey  remedies,  114. 

Honoring  distinguished  guests,   102,   269, 

290.     (See   Hospitality.) 
Horse,  179,  iSo. 
Hospitality,  82-93,  I02- 
Household,  The,  39-42. 
Houses,  247-255. 
Housetops,  240,  253,  254. 
Hov/ling  denislies,  285,  286. 
Hunger  limit,  136. 
Hunting,  188-190. 
''Husks,"  carob,  156. 
Hysterical  display  (mourning),  117. 


Images,  277- 
India  hoiises,  255. 

rests,  250. 

Inheritance  customs,  ^65. 

Ink,  230. 

Inns,  90,  91,  256,  259.     (See  Caravansary, 

Khan.) 
Insane,  The,  114  . 
Inst^lc^;on  of  children,  47,  52-58. 
Instruments,  musical,  220-224. 
Interment,  121-126. 
Irby,  Charles  L.,  on  hospitality,   103. 


296 


INDEX. 


Japanese  children,  51. 

customs,  236. 

Jars,  stone,  155,  168. 

Jewelry,  loS-iio. 

Jewish  education  of  children,  57. 

Journeymen,  209. 

Jowett,  William,  on  foot-washing,  89. 

Joy  over  children,  43. 
udges  poorly  paid,  267. 


Kamaj,  "bread,"  97. 

Keeping  wine,  155. 

Kettle-drum,  222. 

Kevs,  2';o. 

Khan,   "91,    256-258.     (See   Caravansary, 

Inns.) 
Kharub.     (See  Carob.) 
Khatibeh,  "matchmaker,"  17. 
Khir.vy,  "covenant,"  154. 
Kibby  (foodj,  32. 
Kinsmen,  70. 

Klein,  F.  A.,  on  scarcity  of  workmen,  209. 
Koran,  225,  280. 
Korean  dress,  1 10. 
Kujtan,  "cloak,"  35,  106. 


Labor  guilds,  212,  214. 

Laborde,  Compte  de,  on  dress,  107. 

Lamentations,  119. 

Land  tenure,  127-130. 

Lane,  E.  W.,  on  betrothal  ceremony,  22; 
processions,  24,  26,  29;  schools, 
52;  position  of  women,  67;  foods, 
95;  blessing  food,  102;  dress, 
107;  seal  ring,  109;  meiical 
practice,  113;  grief,  119;  dirge 
or  death  song,  120;  burial,  122; 
threshing  instrument,  142;  water 
jars,  155;  scribes,  226;  beds, 
252;  prayer  attitudes,  283. 

Laws,  fish,  187. 

not  observed,  363. 

Lawsuits,  267. 

Layard,  A.  H.,  on  peasant  women,  65; 
nose  rings,  109;  ivory  fig'.ires, 
20S;  shops  "at  the  gate,"  337; 
sheikh's  tent,  241;  Persian 
khans,  258. 

Leasing  land,  127    128. 

Leben,  "sour  milk,"  95. 

Leprosy,  111-114. 

Letters,  228. 

Liberty  spirit  spreading,  264. 

Lice,  258. 

Life  work  of  farmer,  134. 

Locks,  250. 

Locusts,  100. 

Lodges,  traveler's,  90,  256. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  quoted,  115. 

I  ■■ive-miking  unknown,  16. 

Loyalty  to  family,  14. 

Lynch,  W.  F.,  on  viol,  223. 


MacGregor,  Robt.,  "  Rob  Roy,"  on  eating 

salt,  82. 
Magistrates  poorly  paid,  267. 
Mahal,  "mourning  house,"  n8. 
Mah'ar,  dowry,  20,  23. 
Malcolm,  Dr.  H.,  on  washing  the  feet,  89. 
Sir  John,  on  limited  man-iages  in 

Persia,  41 
Mandrake  ajfples,  138. 
Mangles,  James,  on  hospitality,  103. 
Manners,  children  trained  in,  53.  ' 
Manning,  Rev.  Samuel,  on  figs,  146. 
Market,  232,  234,  257. 
days,  234,  237- 


Markook,  "bread,"  97. 
Marriage,  16-38. 

congratulations,  33. 

—  contract,  18. 

dowry,  19. 

—  feasts,  31-38. 

processions,  24-30. 

settlement,  20. 


Mash'al,  "torch,"  29. 

Mashee  (food),  99. 

Master  craftsmen,  213. 

Matchmaker,  "khatibeh,"  17. 

Matchmaking,  17,  18. 

Maundrell,  Henry,  on  vetches,  139. 

McChejTie,  R.  M.,  on  Arab  songs,  223;  out- 
side staircase,  255;  khan,  256. 

Merrls,  loi. 

Mechanical  arts,  208-212. 

Medicine-man,  ''hakim,"  115. 

Meditation,  290. 

Medlar,  145. 

Menzil,  01,  250.     (See  Inns,  Khan.) 

Merit  in  prayer  attitudes,  283. 

Merrill,  I)r.  Selah,  on  Arab  curiositj',  88; 
figs,  147- 

Metal  vessels,  209. 

workers,  208. 


Methods  of  warfare,  202,  203. 

Midnight  call,  29. 

Milk,  05. 

Mirrors,  100. 

Mixed  classes  in  household,  61. 

>fo,(Thr>bKhab,  Rev.  F.,  on  covenants,  155. 

Money,  109,  216,  234. 

Monopoly,  fishing,  184. 

of  arts  and  trades,  211,  212. 


^Tor^Is,  272,  273,  276. 

Morier,  James,  on  tear  bottles,  124;  caT>- 

tives,  207;  fairs  in  Persia,  237. 
Moslem  prayer  attitudes,  280. 

women,  64. 

worship,  272,  273.  276,  277. 


Mosque,  dragoman  at  prayer  in,  283. 

Mounting  camels,  105. 

Mourning  and  burials,  11 7-126. 

Mud  houses,  254. 

Mulberry,  156. 

M'de  and  ass,  176,  178,  200. 

"Mummy  wheat."  Egyptian,  137. 

Music  and  musical  instruments,  217-224. 

Musical  scale,  217,  218. 

Mystics,  287. 


INDEX. 


297 


Names,  personal,  44,  279. 
Narglnleh,  "smoking  bottle,"  ass- 
Nature  worship,  274. 
Neighbors,  70. 
Nets,  tishing,  184-1S6. 
Nevius,  Kev.  J.  L.,  on  demon  possession  in 

China,  113. 
Niebuhr,  Karstens,  on  anointing  guests,  89. 
Nomads,  240. 
Nutrition,  98. 
Nuts,  133. 


Obedience  of  children,  59. 
Occupations  and  professions,  131-144. 
Offerings  and  sacritices,  288-291. 
Oil  and  honey  remedies,  114. 

—  olive,  149,  150. 

—  press,  150. 

Olearius  on  providing  robes  for  guests,  35 

Olive,  147-150. 

■ and  peace,  149. 

berries  as  food,  149. 

Ophthalmia  in  the  Orient,  115. 
Oral  teaching,  54. 
Organizations,  religious,  277. 
Ornaments,  personal,  108-110. 
Oven,  98. 

Overturned  customs,  11. 

Ownership  of  land  and  property,  127-130, 

264-266. 
Oxen,  176,  177. 


Palgrave,  Wm.  G.,  on  camels,  193. 

Palm,  156. 

Palmer,  E.  H.,  on  Arab    hospitality,  84; 

bread,  98. 
Pannier  mode  of  travel,  200. 
Paper,  writing,  229,  230. 
Parades,  public,  24. 
Parched  grain,  140. 
Parents,  50. 
Patriarchal  rule,  14. 
Patriotism,  14. 
Pay  in  advance,  214. 

resented,  87. 

Peace  covenant,  205. 
Peasant  houses,  247. 

women.  65. 

Pens,  writing,  228,  2.'?o. 

Percussion  instruments  (music),  222. 

Peril  of  shepherd  life,  17,^. 

Perl<ins,  Dr.  Justin,  on  limited  marriages, 
41;  seal  ring,  109;  scribes,  226; 
stone  doors  in  Persia,  250. 

Persian  khans,  258. 

Person''!  rule  (government),  262. 

titles  to  lands,  127. 

Physical  features  of  Palestine,  129. 
Phvsirians,  113. 

Piety,  272 

Pi "-pnn -houses,  Egyptian,  253. 

Pilff!  (food),  32. 

Pitching  the  tent,  241,  343. 

Pitfall,  188. 


Pits,  storage,  144,  235,  260. 

Place  of  honor,  102. 

Plan  of  Egyptian  house,  252. 

■ Syrian  house,  247. 

Plautus,  on  story  of  hospitality,  82. 

Plays,  child's,  49. 

Plow,  134. 

Poet,  shepherd,  160. 

Polygamy,  40. 

Pomegranate,  145,  157. 

Porter,  J.  L.,  on  cities  of  Bashan  land,  240. 

Po.ssessions,  264. 

Post,  Dr.  Geo.  E.,  on  women  as  slaves,  14; 
marriage  processions,  25,  27; 
marriage  feasts,  32;  wedding 
garment,  35;  divorce,  66;  public 
assemblage,  69;  receiving  visit- 
ors, 70;  story  of  Caliph  and 
shepherd  boy,  77  ;  salutations, 
78;  bread,  97;  drinking,  100; 
dress,  108;  leprosy,  iii;  olive 
oil,  lis;  death  scene,  117;  bur- 
ial of  dead,  120;  buying  land, 
128;  number  of  fruits  in  Pales- 
tine, 145;  figs,  146 ;  fattening 
sheep,  165;  hsh  nets,  184;  drom- 
edary, 194,  19s;  traveling  from 
Cairo  to  Sinai,  195;  roads,  196; 
Samaritan  book  of  the  law,  225; 
debt,  254;  women  shoppers,  255; 
peasants'  houses,  247;  small 
gate  doors,  251;  parley  at  en- 
trance gate,  251;  khans,  2';9; 
government,  262;  rulers,  263; 
property  holding,  265;  inherit- 
ance, 265;  jails,  270;  relit^ious 
sects,  272;  lying,  272;  devout- 
ness,   279;   ejaculations,   280. 

Posture  in  prayer,  280,  281,  284. 

Prayer  and  vows,  279-287. 

beads,  282. 

cylinders,  282. 

wheel,  282. 


I*resents,  not  pay,  85. 

PVimitive  order,  39, 

Prisons  and  prisoners,  267-371. 

Privacy,  Oriental,  71. 

Processions,  marriage,  24-30. 

Profanity,  273. 

Professions  and  occupations,  131-145. 

Promises  not  kept,  263,  273. 

Property,  taxes,  rit^hting  wrongs,  262-271. 

Proverbs  on  hosnitality,  00. 

olives  and  figs,  150. 

Provisions  for  traveling,  195,  197,  198. 
Pruning  vines,  151. 
Public  assemblage,  69- 

guest-room,  87. 

scribes,  225. 


Purity  taught,  57. 
Purse,  197. 


Queens,  65. 

Questions  (curiosity),  88. 

QurSn.    (See  Koran.) 


298 


INDEX. 


Rain  in  Syria,  134. 

Raisins,  153. 

Kaku,  "wine,"  100. 

Ram's  hiorn,  173. 

Raulinson,  George,  on  ointment,  90. 

Reaping,  13S. 

Records,  227. 

Reed  pens,  228,  230. 

Refreshments,   74.     (See  Hospitality.) 

Relation  of  parents,  children,  and  servants, 

59-62. 
Religion  and  morals,  272-291. 
Reli;^ious  membership,  276. 

motive  in  education  of  children,  52. 

training  of  chilaren,  54-50. 

Resentment  over  pay,  87. 
ket.iiners,  62. 

Returning  s;:lutations,  80. 

Revi/araing  hospitality,  84-87. 

Righting  wrongs,  262-271. 

Rights  of  tenants,  129. 

Rings,  ear,  109. 

nose,  109. 

■ signet,  loS,  226. 

Roads,  igo,  197. 

Robbery,  example  of,  266. 

Robinson,  Edward,  on  rewarding  hospital- 
ity, 87;  washing  the  feet,  88 
plucking  grain,  94;  leben,  95 
threshing,  141;  camels,  192,  193 
seals,  226;  nomad  encampment^ 
243;  staircase,  254. 

Rock  refuges,  239. 

Rod  and  staff,  162. 

Roofs  of  houses,  249,  252. 

Rooms  of  houses,  71,  247.  248,  252. 

Ruins  as  camp  sites,  244. 

Rulers,  Oriental,  262,  263. 

Runners  (footmeni,  201 

Russell,  Dr.,  on  resting  places  in  India,  259 


Sacrifices,  177,  2S8-290. 
Safety  in  traveling,  195. 
Saints,  273,  289. 
Salaams,  78. 
"Saltana"  raisins,  153. 
Salutations,  77-81. 
Samaritan  book  of  the  law,  225. 
Sanitary  measures,  258. 
Scale,  musical,  217-219. 
Schoolmaster,  22,  52. 
Schools,  52. 

subjects  taught  in,  55,  56. 

Scissors  necessary,  230. 

Scorpions,  358. 

Scribes,  225, 

Scrip,  197 

Seal  ring,  226. 

Seals  (writing),  226,  230. 

Seasons,  T38. 

Seclusion  of  women,  61,  68. 

Second  marriage,  22. 

Sects,  277. 

Seed,  i3i;-T37. 

Selling,  215,  232-238. 


Semen,  99. 
Semites,  15. 
Servants,  60-62. 

children  as,  60. 


Settlement,  marriage,  20. 

Shalom,  "peace,"  So. 

Shaw,  Thomas,  on  custom  of  not  eating 
alone,  93;  staircase  in  Barbary, 
255;  sleeping  room,  255. 

Shearing  sheep,  172. 

Sheep,  159-167,  172,  175. 

calling  by  name,  160,  163. 

Sheepfolds,  163. 

Sheepskin,  167. 

Sheikh,  how  armed,  202. 

influence  of,  13,  290. 

Shepherd  a  poet,  160. 

and  flock,  159-175. 

doctors,  113,  160. 

dog,  166. 


Ships,  199. 

Shoes,  105,  197. 

Shopkeepers,  235. 

Shops,  232-237.    (See  Bazaars,  Markets.) 

Shrieks  of  mourners,  118. 

Slirines,  284. 

Sliut  dcor,  30. 

Shj'ness  of  children,  49. 

Sickle,  139. 

Sickness,  115. 

Sifting  grain,  142. 

Signet  ring,  108,  226. 

Silos,  144,  235. 

Silversmith,  210,  213. 

Sitting  and  conversation,  73. 

at  work,  custom  of,  214,  237. 


Skill  of  workmen,  211. 
Skin  bottles,  155. 
Slaves  in  the  East,  '60. 
Sling,  shepherd's,  161. 
Sra.ali-pox,  116. 
Sn.ares,  190. 
Social  basis,  190. 

intercourse,  hospitality,  82-93. 

• neighbors,  kinsmen,  70-76. 

salutations,  77-81. 


urit,  37,  40. 

visits,  70. 

Soil,  129,  136. 
Son,  14,  43,  59- 

seeks  advice,  59. 

Son-heir,  43. 

Songs,  222. 

Sowing,  134,  13s,  137,  138. 

and  reaping  together.  138. 

Spear,  202. 

Spices  in  burial,  121. 

Spirit  worship,  274. 

Spirits,  evil,  iii. 

Sooils  of  war,  205,  206. 

Staff,  162,  199. 

St-'ircase,  2';4. 

Stall-fed  cattle,  178. 

Stephens,  J.  L.,  on  Arab  hospitality,  85. 

Stens  and  grades  (education),  47. 

Stone  jars,  155,  i68. 


INDEX. 


299 


Store  pits,  144,  233,  260. 

Storehouses,  260,  261. 

btranger-g'jest,  82. 

btray  sheep,  161. 

Streets,  237. 

"Striding  a  bargain,"  215,  233. 

String  of  coins,  106. 

Stringed  instruments,  220. 

Subjects  taught  in  schools,  5s,  56- 

Supplies  for  traveling,  19s,  197.  198. 

Sword,  203. 

Sycamine,  156. 

Sycaraore,  158 

Symbols  and  gestures,  81. 

SyTian  ch"css,  loS. 

house,  247. 

sheep,  161,  164,  167. 


Tabooed  topics,  73. 

Talmudic  proverbs,  56. 

Tambourine,  222 

Tares,  136. 

Taveraier,  J.  B.,  on  hospitality,  86. 

Taxes,  264,  26O-269. 

Teachers,  55. 

Teaching,  S2-5S. 

Tear  bottles,  124. 

Tenants,  land,  127-130,  264-266. 

rights  of,  265. 

Tent  door,  24s. 

life,  131,  241-246. 

making,  215. 

Tenure,  land,  127-130,  264,  265. 

Terhalu,  bride-portion,  37. 

Thanksgiving  offerings,  2S8. 

Th^venot,  Jean  de,  on  wedding  procession, 
India,  29. 

Thibetan  prayer  form,  282. 

Thomson,  W.  M.,  on  salutations,  79;  lep- 
rosy, 1 11;  figs,  146;  dios,  154; 
flocks,  164;  broad-tailed  sheep, 
165;  shepherd  dogs,  166;  boats 
on  Lake  of  Galilee,  200;  v.ritmg 
letters,  22S;  house-tent,  243; 
camp  sites,  244;  sleeping  rooms, 
2';i;  mud  houses,  254;  crstle 
khan,  2S7;  Moslem  prayer 
attitudes,  280;  prayer  by  moon- 
light, 281. 

Threshmg,  140-142. 

Tithes,  264. 

Token  of  friendship,  93- 

of  hospitnlity,  82. 

Tombs,  123,  200. 
Tools,  workinsi,  210,  211. 
Topics  tabooed,  73- 
ToT^ers  ?nd  watchmen,  152. 
Tovs,  rhiWren's,  49. 
Tr'des,  20S-216. 

unions,  211,  214. 

Trnditions,  227. 
Training,  v.ife,  39. 

value  of  educational,  56. 

TfvpHnr',  101-201. 
Treading  grain,  142. 


Treading  grapes,  1.54. 

Treatment  of  guests,  88.     (See  Hospitality.) 

Trees,  133,  148,  isCi-isS. 

Tribal  titles  to  lands,  127. 

Tristram,  H.  B.,  on  redding  garment,  35; 
burial,  121,  123;  early  barley 
harvest,  137;  silos,  144,  236, 
261;  figs,  147;  dit>s,  154;  palm 
tree  near  Jericho,  157;  flocks, 
164,  168,  172;  shepherd  dogs, 
166;  separating  tlocks,  170; 
fishing  in  Sea  of  Galilee,  186; 
camels,  192;  housetops,  253; 
guest  chamber,  253;  store- 
houses, 261.    (See  5i/oi,  above.) 

Troglodytes  (cave  dwellers),  239. 

Trousseau,  bride's,  i6,  20,  24- 

Trumbull,  H.  C.,  on  hospitality,  77;  street 
beggars,  116;  prayer,  283. 

Trumpets,  173. 

Turb;m,  105. 


Unions,  trades,  211,  214. 

Unveiling  the  face,  33. 

"Upper  room,"  234. 

Use  of  oil  ."nd  figs,  150. 

Utensils,  household,  209,  210,  245,  253. 


Value  of  educational  training,  56. 

Van  Lennep,  H.  J.,  on  school  book.";,  53; 
broad-tiiled  sheep,  165;  herds. 
176;  camel  riding,  194;  musical 
scale,  219;  writing  paper,  229; 
shops,  232;  bazaars,  233;  rock 
refuges,  239;  houses  in  Western 
Asia,   24S;   der\'ishes,   285-287. 

Vedas  and  Hinclu  education,  57. 

Vegetables,  09,  133. 

X'epetarians,  94,  240. 

Veiling  the  face,  33. 

Vermin,  2 58. 

\  essels,  metal,  209. 

Vibrations,  music,  219. 

Vicarious  sacrifice,  289. 

Vines,  151- 154. 

Vineyards,   152. 

Viol,  223. 

Votive  offerings,  288-200. 

Vows,  religious,  2S6,  288,  290. 


Wad-el-Ward,  G.,  on  marriage  procession, 

30;  deposed  sultan,  268. 
WniliniT,  117-120. 
Waked.  "  deputy,"  20. 
W-r  lirrse,  iFo. 
Warfare.  202-207. 
W.^rriors,  202,  20^. 
Wnshin?  before  eating,  88,  loi. 

recess::rv,  loi. 

the  feet.'  88. 

Wasit,  "deputy,"  19. 


Watchmen,  152. 
Water  jars,  155,  168. 


300 


INDEX. 


Water  supply,  130. 
Watering  flocks,  174. 
Wealth  of  Orientals,  171,  177. 
Weapons,  20a,  203. 
Wedding  costumes,  20,  24. 

customs,  24-38. 

garment,  34. 

processions,  24-30. 

Weeping  at  tomb,  123. 

Whately,  Miss  M.  L.,  on  Gchool-girls  in 

Cairo,  16. 
Wheat,  136,  138. 
Wheeled  carriages,  179. 
Wife,  seeking  a,  17. 

training,  39. 

Wild  goat,  169. 
sheep,  164. 

Wilkinson,  Sir  I.  G.,  on  polygamy  in  Egypt, 

Williams, Sir  M.M.,on  prayer  cylinder,  282. 
Wilson,  Rev.  John,  on  flocks,  172. 
Wind  instruments,  music,  221. 
Wine,  100. 
press,  153. 


Winnowing,  142. 
Women,  63-69. 

■ concealed,  61,  68. 

degraded,  63-68. 

drudges,  68. 

secluded,  61. 

shoppers,  235. 

slave  companions,  61. 

Wood  workers,  208,  210. 
Wool  of  sheep,  167. 
Workshops  rare,  209. 
Worship,  272-291. 
Wrapping  the  body  (burial),  121. 
Writing,  225-231,  237. 

materials,  229,  230. 


Wrongs,  righting,  262-271. 


Yearly  mourning,  124. 
Young  children,  46,  47. 


Zavt,  olive  oil,  150. 
Zeffeh,  "parade,"  34,  27. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


REC'D  LD-URli 
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nrcSO  37 
WK  APR  OB  2001 


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